妊娠期甲状腺疾病与妊娠期糖尿病关系的研究进展
Research Progress on the Relationship between Thyroid Disease and Gestational Diabetes in Pregnancy
DOI: 10.12677/acm.2024.1461927, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 13  浏览: 24 
作者: 高 娜, 王 青, 孙晓青:西安医学院,研究生工作部,陕西 西安;魏君香, 贺译平:西北妇女儿童医院,产科,陕西 西安
关键词: 妊娠甲状腺疾病妊娠期糖尿病胰岛素抵抗Pregnancy Thyroid Diseases Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Insulin Resistance
摘要: 妊娠期甲状腺疾病和妊娠期糖尿病都是在妊娠期间常见的内分泌疾病,且发病率呈逐年上升的趋势。二者都与许多不良妊娠结局相关,如早产、流产、高血压疾病等。虽然妊娠期甲状腺疾病与妊娠期糖尿病的发病机制尚不明确,但许多研究表明,二者之间密切相关。本文旨在通过探讨甲状腺功能的各项指标与妊娠期糖尿病之间的关系来阐明二者之间是否存在相关性,从而加强妊娠期间甲状腺功能及血糖的监测,及时予以治疗,减少不良妊娠结局。
Abstract: Thyroid diseases and gestational diabetes are both endocrine disorders that are common during pregnancy, and their incidence is increasing year by year. Both are associated with many adverse pregnancy outcomes, such as premature birth, miscarriage, and hypertension disorders. Although the pathogenesis of gestational thyroid disorders and gestational diabetes is not yet clear, many studies have shown that they are closely related. This article aims to clarify the relationship between various indicators of thyroid function and gestational diabetes to determine whether there is a correlation between the two, thereby enhancing monitoring of thyroid function and blood glucose during pregnancy and providing timely treatment to reduce adverse pregnancy outcomes.
文章引用:高娜, 王青, 孙晓青, 魏君香, 贺译平. 妊娠期甲状腺疾病与妊娠期糖尿病关系的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2024, 14(6): 1397-1402. https://doi.org/10.12677/acm.2024.1461927

1. 引言

妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus, GDM)是指孕前糖代谢正常,在妊娠期发生的糖代谢异常,是最常见的妊娠合并症之一。GDM会使孕妇和胎儿产生严重并发症,影响妊娠结局。与此同时,妊娠期甲状腺疾病的发病率逐年升高,甲状腺疾病在育龄期妇女中较为常见,是仅次于GDM的第二大妊娠期内分泌疾病。近年来,这两种疾病逐渐被重视,研究表明,GDM是由β细胞功能障碍和胰岛素抵抗(IR)引起的[1]。有胰岛素抵抗史的患者,如患有GDM的孕妇,甲状腺功能异常的发生率较高[2]。关于这两者之间的关系仍然存在争议,本文旨在通过探讨甲状腺功能的各项指标与GDM之间的关系来阐明二者之间是否存在相关性。

2. 妊娠期甲状腺疾病

甲状腺疾病是妊娠期较常见的内分泌疾病,包括甲状腺功能异常和甲状腺自身免疫性疾病,国内相关指南指出:孕期临床甲状腺功能减退症(甲减)、亚临床甲减、甲状腺毒症、患病率分别为0.3%~1.0%、4.0%~17.8%、1.0%,甲状腺过氧化物酶抗体(TPOAb)或甲状腺球蛋白抗体(TgAb)阳性率为2.0%~17.0% [3]。甲状腺功能异常(尤其甲状腺功能减退症)可以影响全身多个系统功能异常,严重时危害母婴健康,可导致多种不良妊娠结局,如自然流产、早产、胎盘早剥、产前胎膜早破、子痫、死胎等,并危害后代的神经智力发育[4]

3. GDM

GDM是指在孕期才出现或确诊的糖尿病,全球范围内GDM的发生率在1%~15%之间[5]。在中国的患病率逐渐增加,根据最近的报告,目前发生率为14.8% [6]。其与许多不良妊娠结局相关,包括早产、羊水过多、巨大儿、肩难产、入住新生儿重症监护病房、新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征、胎儿低血糖和高胆红素血症等。死胎的风险也会增加[7]。除了妊娠相关的风险外,被诊断患有GDM的妇女在以后的生活中患2型糖尿病(T2D)的风险也会增加[8]。因此,GDM已经成为全球的重要公共卫生问题。

4. 妊娠期甲状腺疾病与GDM

妊娠期甲状腺疾病和GDM都是孕期常见的内分泌疾病。几项研究表明,这两种情况经常同时发生。这种关联可能是由于甲状腺激素对母亲的作用而诱发的胰岛素抵抗状态[9]。另一种可能的解释是GDM和妊娠期甲状腺疾病在胎盘形成过程中的改变。2021年一篇Meta分析报道[10]孕妇TSH (促甲状腺激素Thyroid stimulating hormone)水平升高(>4.00 mIU/L)增加了GDM的发生风险。Montaner [11]等认为IR是甲状腺抗体导致GDM发生的重要机制,甲状腺抗体的存在会导致促炎细胞因子的增加诱发IR。

4.1. TSH与GDM

TSH是甲状腺激素释放和分泌的主要调节因子,在甲状腺生长发育中起着至关重要的作用,是检测甲状腺功能最敏感的指标,在甲状腺疾病的诊断、监测与疗效评估中发挥要作用[12]。但是,TSH参与GDM发病的相关生物学机制仍不明确。在非孕妇中进行的研究表明,甲状腺功能与葡萄糖稳态之间存在密切联系。一些流行病学研究表明,与一般人群相比,T2D患者甲状腺功能障碍的患病率更高[13]。病理生理学方面,在亚临床或明显的甲状腺功能减退的情况下,肌肉和脂肪组织会对胰岛素产生抵抗,是由于细胞质膜上GLUT4葡萄糖转运蛋白的易位受损,这些组织中胰岛素刺激的葡萄糖摄取减少[14] [15]。所以,可以假设如果甲状腺功能障碍,即使是亚临床的,也可能促进妊娠期胰岛素抵抗状态,并且这也可能是促进妊娠中期GDM发病的机制[16]

Carmen [17]等在一项研究中对孕妇产前进行了TSH筛查,发现孕期TSH浓度越高,GDM的发生率越高,且差异具有统计学意义(P = 0.002)。Nykola L [18]等在一篇包括10项队列研究的荟萃分析中发现TSH水平高于4.00 mIU/L的孕妇GDM患病风险增加了1.6倍。在中国北方进行的一项前瞻性研究中[19],纳入了7258例受试者和594例GDM病例,在TSH浓度 ≤ 3.2 mIU/L的受试者中,TSH与GDM风险呈正相关,但在TSH浓度 > 3.2 mIU/L的受试者中则不相关。相反,在中国上海进行的一项大型回顾性研究中[20],较高的TSH浓度与GDM风险较低相关。另一项回顾性队列研究中[21]观察到TSH浓度或状态与GDM之间无相关性。这一结果与之前的三项研究结果一致(两项在美国[22] [23],一项在中国[24])。

4.2. FT3 (游离三碘甲状腺原氨酸)、FT4 (游离四碘甲状腺原氨酸)与GDM

在怀孕期间,甲状腺的体积会因为满足怀孕增加的激素需求而增大,增长约40%。这种增大伴随着血清FT3和FT4水平的变化以及甲状腺总体代谢活动的增加[25]。甲状腺激素(TH),即FT3和FT4,在调节糖代谢的平衡中起着至关重要的作用,在病理生理学中,它参与胰岛素信号转导和维持葡萄糖稳态。无论是缺乏或过量的TH,都会破坏体内正常的葡萄糖调节。T4通常被认为是前激素,作为生物活性形式T3的前体,FT3/FT4比值用于评估脱碘酶活性。在一项横断面研究中,观察到TH水平正常的女性中脱碘酶活性升高与较高的BMI相关,脱碘酶活性升高与较高的血糖水平显著相关。因此理论上,BMI造成的脱碘酶活性增加可能会通过放大T3的作用而增加GDM的风险[26]

最近的一项研究报告发现,妊娠后期较高的FT3/FT4比值与GDM发生风险增加、不良妊娠结局和产后早期不良代谢特征有关[27]。但是,该研究的样本量相对较小,无法证明FT3/FT4对GDM发生的预测价值。另一项研究建立了妊娠早期FT3/FT4比值与空腹血糖之间的相关性,并得出结论,FT3/FT4是GDM发展的独立危险因素[27]。这一发现与另外一项来自中国人群的队列研究结果一致[28],且这项大样本数据研究还表明,当与独立分组的FT4和FT3相比时,FT3/FT4比值对GDM的发生具有更大的预测价值。然而,某些研究表明,即使在考虑混杂变量后,FT4和GDM之间也没有统计学显著相关性[29] [30]

4.3. TPOAb、TgAb与GDM

甲状腺自身抗体包括TPOAb和TgAb,其为甲状腺自身免疫(TAI)的特异性指标[31]。研究表明,TAI和GDM通过两条途径相互联系。一种是通过(亚)临床甲状腺功能减退症的发展(TAI是甲状腺功能减退症的最常见原因),另一种是通过涉及IL-6和TNF-α的炎症途径;两种途径均可导致IR [32] [33]

在2015年以来发表的针对中国甲状腺功能正常人群的原始研究中观察到,TAI和GDM之间存在显著关联(比值比(OR)在1.65和2.54之间) [34] [35]。另外一项国外的横断面队列研究指出,30岁以上妇女妊娠早期TPOAb水平升高与妊娠后期发生GDM之间存在显著关联[36]。这就意味着,无论甲状腺功能是否异常,TAI孕妇的血糖监测非常重要。并且这种监测应该持续至产后,因为Tang的研究报道了,TAI可能会增加产后T2D的风险[37]。然而,在一项荟萃分析中提出,妊娠早期甲状腺抗体阳性与孕妇发生GDM的风险无显著关联(合并RR 1.08,95% CI 0.97~1.21),基于目前的研究,孕早期甲状腺抗体对GDM风险的预测价值较低。如果只考虑TPOAb,也得到了类似的结果[32]

5. 小结

综上所述,由于甲状腺激素与胰岛素的相互作用,甲状腺功能异常患者可能极易并发糖代谢的异常。妊娠期甲状腺疾病可能造成IR甚至是GDM的发生,尤其是TSH,二者相关性更高。妊娠早期加强孕妇甲状腺功能的检测,有助于及早的发现妊娠期甲状腺疾病,及时良好的治疗甲状腺疾病,可能会减少GDM及其他不良妊娠结局的发生或减轻其病情。但是,妊娠期甲状腺疾病与GDM之间的关联仍需要进一步的研究,来确定这两种疾病中哪一种是主要的。

参考文献

[1] Catalano, P.M. (2014) Trying to Understand Gestational Diabetes. Diabetic Medicine, 31, 273-281.
https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.12381
[2] Bitterman, O., Bongiovanni, M., Giuliani, C., et al. (2014) Anti Thyroperoxidase and Anti Thyroglobulin Antibodies in Diabetic Pregnancies. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 37, 911-915.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-014-0087-4
[3] 单忠艳, 王临虹. 孕产期甲状腺疾病防治管理指南[J]. 中国妇幼卫生杂志, 2022, 13(4): 1-15.
[4] Rosario, P.W., Carvalho, M. and Calsolari, M.R. (2016) TSH Reference Values in the First Trimester of Gestation and Correlation between Maternal TSH and Obstetric and Neonatal Outcomes: A Prospective Brazilian Study. Archives of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 60, 314-318.
https://doi.org/10.1590/2359-3997000000132
[5] Gunderson, E.P., Sun, B., Catov, M., et al. (2021) Gestational Diabetes History and Glucose Tolerance after Pregnancy Associated with Coronary Artery Calcium in Women during Midlife: The CARDIA Study. Circulation, 143, 974-987.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.120.047320
[6] Gao, C., Sun, X., Lu, L., et al. (2019) Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Mainland China: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Diabetes Investigation, 10, 154-162.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.12854
[7] Philips, C., Emonts, P., Pintiaux, A., et al. (2013) Management of Gestational Diabetes. Revue Médicale de Liège, 68, 489-496.
[8] Lende, M. and Rijhsinghani, A. (2020) Gestational Diabetes: Overview with Emphasis on Medical Management. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, Article 9573.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17249573
[9] Pinto, S., Croce, L., Carlier, L., et al. (2023) Thyroid Dysfunction during Gestation and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Complex Relationship. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 46, 1737-1759.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-023-02079-3
[10] Kent, N.L., Young, S.L., Akison, L.K., et al. (2021) Is the Link between Elevated TSH and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Dependant on Diagnostic Criteria and Thyroid Antibody Status: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Endocrine, 74, 38-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-021-02733-x
[11] Montaner, P., Juan, L., Campos, R., et al. (2008) Is Thyroid Autoimmunity Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus? Metabolism, 57, 522-525.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metabol.2007.11.015
[12] Hashimoto, K. (2022) Update on Subclinical Thyroid Dysfunction. Endocrine Journal, 69, 725-738.
https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ22-0182
[13] Knudsen, N., Laurberg, P., Rasmussen, L.B., et al. (2005) Small Differences in Thyroid Function May Be Important for Body Mass Index and the Occurrence of Obesity in the Population. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 90, 4019-4024.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-2225
[14] Dimitriadis, G., Mitrou, P., Lambadiari, V., et al. (2006) Insulin Action in Adipose Tissue and Muscle in Hypothyroidism. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 91, 4930-4937.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2006-0478
[15] Maratou, E., Hadjidakis, D., Kollias, A., et al. (2009) Studies of Insulin Resistance in Patients with Clinical and Subclinical Hypothyroidism. European Journal of Endocrinology, 160, 785-790.
https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-08-0797
[16] Li, F., Hu, Y., Zeng, J., et al. (2020) Analysis of Risk Factors Related to Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 59, 718-722.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tjog.2020.07.016
[17] Tudela, C.M., Casey, B.M., McIntire, D.D., et al. (2012) Relationship of Subclinical Thyroid Disease to the Incidence of Gestational Diabetes. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 119, 983-988.
https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e318250aeeb
[18] Kent, N.L., Young, S.L., Akison, L.K., et al. (2021) Is the Link between Elevated TSH and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Dependanton Diagnostic Criteria and Thyroid Antibody Status: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Endocrine, 74, 38-49.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-021-02733-x
[19] Leng, J., Li, W., Wang, L., et al. (2019) Higher Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Levels in the First Trimester Are Associated with Gestational Diabetes in a Chinese Population. Diabetic Medicine, 36, 1679-1685.
https://doi.org/10.1111/dme.14106
[20] Yang, S., Shi, F.T., Leung, P.C., et al. (2016) Low Thyroid Hormone in Early Pregnancy Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 101, 4237-4243.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-1506
[21] Chen, G.D., Gou, X.Y., Pang, T.T., et al. (2022) Associations between Thyroid Function and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Chinese Pregnant Women: A Retrospective Cohort Study. BMC Endocrine Disorders, 22, Article No. 44.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12902-022-00959-y
[22] Rawal, S., Tsai, M.Y., Hinkle, S.N., et al. (2018) A Longitudinal Study of Thyroid Markers across Pregnancy and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 103, 2447-2456.
https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-02442
[23] Plowden, T.C., Schisterman, E.F., Sjaarda, L.A., et al. (2017) Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Anti-Thyroid Antibodies, and Pregnancy Outcomes. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 217, 697.E1-697.E7.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2017.09.001
[24] Zhang, Y., Sun, W., Zhu, S., et al. (2020) The Impact of Thyroid Function and TPOAb in the First Trimester on Pregnancy Outcomes: A Retrospective Study in Peking. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 105, e368-e380.
https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgz167
[25] Potenza, M., Via, M.A. and Yanagisawa, R.T. (2009) Excess Thyroid Hormone and Carbohydrate Metabolism. Endocrine Practice, 15, 254-262.
https://doi.org/10.4158/EP.15.3.254
[26] Lyu, J., Imachi, H., Yoshimoto, T., et al. (2018) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Stimulates the Expression of Glucose Transporter 2 via Its Receptor in Pancreatic Beta Cell Line, INS-1 Cells. Scientific Reports, 8, Article No. 1986.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20449-3
[27] Raets, L., Minschart, C., Van Den Bruel, A., et al. (2022) Higher Thyroid fT3-to-fT4 Ratio Is Associated with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11, Article 5016.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11175016
[28] Zhao, X., Sun, J.B., Yuan, N., et al. (2023) Free Triiodothyronine (FT3)-to-Free Thyroxine (FT4) Ratio Identified as a Risk Factor for Gestational Diabetes in Euthyroid Pregnant Women: Insights from a Chinese Population Cohort Study. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 14, Article 1281285.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1281285
[29] Simmons, D., Immanuel, J., Hague, W.M., et al. (2023) Treatment of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Diagnosed Early in Pregnancy. The New England Journal of Medicine, 388, 2132-2144.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2214956
[30] Gu, Y., Su, X., Li, Y., et al. (2019) Do Free Thyroxine Levels Influence the Relationship between Maternal Serum Ferritin and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Early Pregnancy? Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice, 151, 114-119.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2019.03.033
[31] 罗文雯, 陈瑜, 陈萍, 等. 甲状腺过氧化物酶抗体与球蛋白抗体阳性对妊娠结局的影响[J]. 科学咨询, 2016(6): 60-62.
[32] Yang, Y., Li, Q., Wang, Q., et al. (2015) Thyroid Antibodies and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Meta-Analysis. Fertility and Sterility, 104, 665-671.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2015.06.003
[33] Biondi, B., Kahaly, G. and Robertson, R.P. (2019) Thyroid Dysfunction and Diabetes Mellitus: Two Closely Associated Disorders. Endocrine Reviews, 40, 789-824.
https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2018-00163
[34] Ying, H., Tang, Y.P., Bao, Y.R., et al. (2016) Maternal TSH Level and TPOAb Status in Early Pregnancy and Their Relationship to the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Endocrine, 54, 742-750.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-016-1022-6
[35] Huang, K., Xu, Y., Yan, S., et al. (2019) Isolated Effect of Maternal Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone, Free Thyroxine and Antithyroid Peroxidase Antibodies in Early Pregnancy on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Birth Cohort Study in China. Endocrine Journal, 66, 223-231.
https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0340
[36] Sitoris, G., Veltri, F., Ichiche, M., et al. (2022) Association between Thyroid Autoimmunity and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Euthyroid Women. European Thyroid Journal, 11, Article ID: e210142.
https://doi.org/10.1530/ETJ-21-0142
[37] Tang, L., Li, P., Zhou, H., et al. (2021) A Longitudinal Study of Thyroid Markers during Pregnancy and the Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Post-Partum Glucose Metabolism. Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews, 37, e3441.
https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.3441