下肢深静脉血栓形成后综合征危险因素及预防策略的研究进展
Research Progress on Risk Factors and Preventive Strategies of Lower Extremity Post-Thrombotic Syndrome
DOI: 10.12677/ACM.2024.142340, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 70  浏览: 129 
作者: 徐叶亮:重庆医科大学附属第二医院,血管疝腹壁外科,重庆
关键词: 血栓形成后综合征下肢深静脉血栓形成危险因素预防策略Post-Thrombotic Syndrome Deep Vein Thrombosis Risk Factors Preventive Strategies
摘要: 下肢深静脉血栓形成后综合征(post-thrombotic syndrome, PTS)是深静脉血栓形成(deep vein thrombosis, DVT)最常见的慢性并发症,可造成患者生活质量的严重下降。目前,早期识别PTS的高危患者并加以干预仍是临床关注的重点,但PTS相关的危险因素以及预防策略的实施细节仍有争议。本文对PTS的危险因素和预防策略进行了综述,以期为PTS预防体系构建提供借鉴,降低PTS发生率。
Abstract: Lower extremity post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS) is the most common chronic complication of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which can cause serious decline in patients’ quality of life. At present, early identification of patients at high risk of PTS and intervention remain the focus of clinical attention, but the risk factors for PTS and the implementation details of preventive strategies are still contro-versial. This article reviewed the risk factors and preventive strategies of PTS, in order to provide reference for the construction of PTS prevention system and reduce the incidence of PTS.
文章引用:徐叶亮. 下肢深静脉血栓形成后综合征危险因素及预防策略的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2024, 14(2): 2426-2433. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2024.142340

1. 引言

血栓形成后综合征(post-thrombotic syndrome, PTS)是下肢深静脉血栓形成(Deep Venous Thrombosis, DVT)后,由于静脉阻塞和深静脉瓣膜受损,导致长期的下肢静脉高压和血液回流障碍所引起的腿部疼痛、沉重、肿胀、瘙痒、色素沉着、浅静脉扩张以及静脉溃疡等一系列综合症。PTS作为一种长期慢性的血管疾病,即便在DVT后进行有效的抗凝治疗,也可影响30%~50%的患者 [1] 。据报道,PTS对患者生活质量上的影响已经超过了糖尿病 [2] 。此外,重度PTS导致的一系列临床症状显著增加了DVT后医疗保健的花费,加重了患者的经济负担 [3] 。鉴于我国人口老龄化和血栓性疾病负担加重,PTS的社会影响将会持续增加。

随着血管腔内治疗技术的不断发展,髂股静脉病变的腔内支架置入术已成为中重度PTS的临床一线治疗,但支架内血栓形成或慢性闭塞的再干预率仍较高。据报道,尽管同时进行抗凝治疗,PTS腔内支架置入术后6个月随访有13.7%的患者发生并发症 [4] 。因此,在DVT发生后,准确识别PTS的高危患者并施行预防策略尤为重要。目前关于PTS的危险因素和预防策略实施的细节仍有争议,本文基于国内外有关PTS的临床证据,对PTS的危险因素和预防策略进行综述,重点关注PTS发生相关的生物标志物,以期降低PTS发生率。

2. PTS的危险因素

目前国内外文献关于PTS危险因素的分类存在较多差异,包括可控因素和不可控因素、患者特异性因素和DVT相关因素以及DVT诊断时的危险因素和随访中的危险因素。其中,性别、诱发性或无诱因的DVT以及遗传性血栓形成倾向已被证明与PTS发生风险无关或影响较小 [5] [6] 。基于PTS长期慢性疾病的特点,为优化患者院内外的全程管理,现根据DVT患者诊断及随访的时间点差异对PTS危险因素进行综述。

2.1. DVT诊断时的危险因素

2.1.1. 高龄

高龄早已被确定为是PTS的独立危险因素 [5] 。据报道,高龄DVT患者发生PTS的风险可增加3倍 [7] 。刘锋等 [8] 人的研究还显示了年龄(≥60岁)是近段DVT后发生重度PTS的独立危险因素,其潜在机制可能与老年人静脉血管的老化、血液粘度增高,静脉瓣膜功能减退相关。

2.1.2. DVT的性质(近段、症状性、非急性期)

PTS的发生与DVT位置密切相关,近段DVT (尤其血栓累及髂股静脉)使PTS风险增加2~3倍 [9] [10] 。Stain和Cowel等人的研究也显示相较于远段DVT,近段DVT患者发生PTS的风险更高 [11] [12] 。此外,多项研究表明DVT诊断时的严重症状对于PTS的发生具有预测作用 [13] [14] 。黄天安等 [15] 研究还发现非急性期的DVT (病程超过2周)是PTS的独立危险因素。与孤立性的远段血栓相比,近段DVT通常伴随着更严重的症状,血栓溶解的时间也更长。随着病程的延长,血栓对于血管壁的炎性刺激以及瓣膜功能的损伤均更严重,导致血管的纤维闭塞和不可逆的瓣膜损伤,最终形成静脉高压而产生PTS。

2.1.3. 下肢静脉曲张

DVT前已发生的下肢静脉曲张会独立增加PTS的风险 [8] [15] 。下肢静脉曲张属于慢性静脉功能不全疾病,也可能表现为沉重、肿胀、色素沉着、浅静脉扩张甚至溃疡等症状。在临床表现上,下肢静脉曲张与PTS具有协同效应,使患者评估PTS的Villalta评分明显升高。两者在病理生理上均为静脉高压改变,原发性下肢静脉曲张是浅静脉瓣膜关闭不全,血液返流导致的,而PTS是因为DVT后深静脉慢性闭塞、瓣膜功能损伤。

2.1.4. 肥胖和超重

肥胖,即体重指数(Body Mass Index, BMI)大于30 kg/m2会使PTS的风险增加近2倍 [7] 。肥胖患者因为炎症介质增加和纤溶活性下降,血液粘稠处于高凝状态,不利于血栓的溶解。同时,肥胖患者的腹腔压力相对较高,下肢肌肉泵的力量较弱,进一步削弱了静脉回流能力,最终形成静脉高压导致PTS的发生。近期国内有研究表明,超重(BMI > 24 kg/m2)也是DVT后PTS发生的独立预测危险因素 [16] 。Kahn等 [9] 的研究还显示,BMI每增加1 kg/m2,PTS的Villalta评分增加0.14分。

2.1.5. 其他合并症

少数研究显示,糖尿病、慢性肾病、恶性肿瘤以及吸烟史可能是PTS的危险因素 [17] [18] [19] ,但缺乏普遍性,仍需要更多大型临床研究支持。

2.2. DVT随访时的危险因素

2.2.1. 残余静脉梗阻

根据Agrawal等 [20] 学者的定义,残余静脉梗阻指DVT初始抗凝治疗结束后仍存在占管腔直径至少40%的血栓。多项国内外研究已表明残余静脉梗阻是PTS发生的危险因素 [21] [22] [23] 。近期荷兰一项长达5年的前瞻性队列研究报道,存在RVO的患者PTS的发生风险是普通患者的1.66倍 [24] 。残余静脉梗阻表明静脉血管的纤维性狭窄甚至闭塞,不利于血液回流,容易形成了下肢静脉高压,导致PTS的发生。此外,一些研究显示,DVT后持续存在的下腔静脉滤器会一定程度影响血液回流,增加下腔静脉血栓形成、梗阻的风险,PTS的发生率也会增加 [8] [25] 。

2.2.2. 深静脉返流

在DVT治疗后随访期间,影像学检查发现深静脉的瓣膜返流会显著增加PTS的风险 [22] 。目前,对PTS的评估通常在DVT发生后6个月进行,最少也是3个月 [2] [22] 。在这之前出现的深静脉返流,往往伴随着更严重的慢性静脉功能不全症状,预示着患者更高的PTS风险。

2.2.3. 抗凝不顺应性

根据欧洲血管外科学会2021年静脉血栓形成指南,抗凝不顺应性定义为诱发性DVT患者接受抗凝治疗少于3个月、无诱因DVT患者抗凝治疗少于6个月、抗凝期间不规律用药以及接受华法林抗凝的患者国际标准化比值(Intemnational Normalized Ratio, INR)低于治疗范围(2~3)至少2次。DVT后进行规律有效的抗凝治疗可以减少PTS的风险已得到广泛的证实 [26] [27] 。Chitsike等人 [28] 进行了一项多中心队列研究发现,接受华法林抗凝治疗的DVT患者,INR多次低于治疗范围发生PTS的风险将升高近1倍。

2.2.4. DVT的复发

DVT的复发被视为PTS的独立危险因素,特别是同侧DVT复发,可使PTS的风险增加3倍以上 [29] 。此外,RIETE登记处的研究还进一步证实复发性的DVT是重度PTS的危险因素 [19] 。复发的血栓会加重了对血管壁和静脉瓣膜的损伤,更容易引起静脉慢性闭塞和血液返流。总之,预防DVT复发就是预防PTS发生的最重要手段。

2.2.5. 生物标志物

近年来,有关PTS生物标志物的研究越来越多。炎症因子和纤溶系统的相互作用在PTS发病机制中占据重要地位。C反应蛋白(C-reactive protein, CRP)作为最常见的炎症指标之一,研究显示DVT后CRP的水平持续升高与PTS的发生显著相关 [30] 。此外,中性粒细胞/淋巴细胞的比值升高是PTS的独立危险因素 [31] 。一项涉及320名DVT患者的前瞻性的研究还显示,DVT后3个月测量的脂联素和瘦素水平可预测PTS的发生 [32] 。多项研究表明,黏附分子ICAM-1显示出了与PTS发生的相关性 [33] [34] 。其他细胞因子包括IL-6、IL-8、IL-10、TNF-α等与PTS发生的关系则显示出不一致的结果,还需进一步研究 [34] 。基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinase, MMP)是一组参与细胞外基质重塑的蛋白水解酶,在血栓后纤维化形成中发挥着重要作用。Francisci等 [35] 人的研究显示MMP-1和MMP-8水平升高和较高的PTS风险相关。

Rabinovich等 [36] 人研究显示D-二聚体和纤维蛋白稳定因子与PTS发生显著相关。多项研究表明了纤溶系统的标志物与PTS之间潜在的联系,但存在一定的异质性 [32] [37] [38] 。目前仍需要更多的前瞻性研究来阐明这些标志物是否真实有助于预测PTS的发展。

3. PTS的预防策略

现阶段,PTS的预防主要基于DVT的规范治疗,压力治疗、运动锻炼和生活方式改善也有助于降低PTS的发生率。

3.1. 标准的抗凝治疗

标准的抗凝治疗仍是预防PTS最有效的策略,其通过防止血栓扩散来达到早期溶解血栓,并降低血栓复发的概率,从而减少瓣膜损伤和残余静脉阻塞的可能。在抗凝药物的选择上,研究显示,使用新型口服抗凝药后的PTS发生率较使用华法林降低,原因可能是新型口服抗凝药无需测定INR,抗凝效果更稳定 [27] 。另有研究表明,低分子肝素由于其稳定的抗凝作用以及潜在的抗炎效果,在预防PTS和静脉溃疡上,要优于华法林甚至新型口服抗凝药 [39] 。此外,关于抗凝时长,一项随机对照试验证明,延长抗凝治疗的时长对于改善PTS临床结果没有明显益处 [40] 。

3.2. 早期血栓清除

随着对血栓认识的不断深入和腔内治疗技术的持续发展,早期清除血栓(导管接触性溶栓、经皮机械性血栓清除术等)在降低PTS的发生率和严重程度上的作用越发受到重视。多项随机对照试验发现,早期血栓清除策略在预防PTS以及重度PTS方面比单独抗凝更有效 [41] [42] [43] 。对于急性、近段深静脉血栓的患者,早期血栓清除策略有助于尽快恢复静脉血流,保护血管内皮,恢复瓣膜功能,减少残余血栓的可能性,最终降低PTS的风险。而这种益处伴随着大出血风险的增加 [44] ,需要临床医生严格控制早期血栓清除策略的指征。国内也有研究显示,对于合并髂静脉狭窄的DVT患者,髂静脉的腔内成形术也可降低PTS发生风险 [15] 。

3.3. 其他药物预防

舒洛地特是一种口服的糖胺聚糖混合物,具有抗血栓、抗炎和内皮保护作用,对于预防PTS和静脉溃疡也有一定的效果 [45] 。有研究显示,他汀类降脂药物对与预防PTS具有潜在的保护作用,但尚缺乏随机对照试验证据 [46] 。尽管地奥司明、七叶皂苷等静脉活性药物可有效缓解慢性静脉功能不全的症状,在预防PTS的证据上依旧不足 [47] 。

3.4. 压力治疗

压力治疗仍是大部分PTS的主要治疗方法。梯度压力袜(Graduated compression stockings, GCS)对于PTS的预防作用也早已被证实,但由于研究之间存在相当较大异质性,现有的证据级别较低 [48] [49] 。中高压力(30~50 mmHg)和长筒型的GCS带来的穿戴困难以及不适感,使得使用者的依从性明显降低。部分随机对照试验显示 [50] [51] ,GCS的长度(中筒或长筒)、压力梯度(低压力或中高压力)以及使用时间(1年或2年),对于PTS的预防作用并没有明显差异,甚至并不能降低PTS的风险。目前,GCS在PTS预防方面的有效性以及应用细节仍有待进一步的探索。

3.5. 运动锻炼和生活方式的改变

运动锻炼能够增强下肢的肌肉泵功能,有利于下肢静脉的血液回流,一定程度上改善患肢的肿胀,减轻PTS的症状。现阶段,运动锻炼对预防PTS的作用尚缺乏可靠的临床证据,但至少不会导致PTS症状的恶化 [52] 。肥胖患者减重可降低中心静脉压来一定程度上改善PTS症状,但目前仍没有高质量的证据证明减重能降低PTS的发病风险。吸烟是众多心血管的危险因素,对DVT患者来说,戒烟、减重等健康的生活方式在预防PTS上至少是无害的。

4. 小结

PTS仍是DVT后最常见、最严重的长期并发症之一。在DVT的诊治和随访期间,早期识别PTS高危患者,并实施有效的预防策略具有明显的益处。除对DVT进行系统的抗凝和血栓清除外,药物预防、压力治疗、运动锻炼以及生活方式的改变也是PTS预防的重要组成部分。炎症因子和纤溶系统相关的生物标志物在预测PTS发生中展现了可观的价值,在未来的PTS预防体系构建中应考虑使用这些生物标志物,以帮助对PTS高风险患者实施更积极的预防策略。

参考文献

[1] Nawasrah, J., Zydek, B., Lucks, J., et al. (2021) Incidence and Severity of Postthrombotic Syndrome after Iliofemoral Thrombosis—Results of the Iliaca-PTS-Registry. VASA, 50, 30-37.
https://doi.org/10.1024/0301-1526/a000933
[2] Broholm, R., Sillesen, H., Damsgaard, M.T., et al. (2011) Postthrombotic Syndrome and Quality of Life in Patients with Iliofemoral Venous Thrombosis Treated with Cathe-ter-Directed Thrombolysis. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 54, 18s-25s.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2011.06.021
[3] Grosse, S.D., Nelson, R.E., Nyarko, K.A., et al. (2016) The Eco-nomic Burden of Incident Venous Thromboembolism in the United States: A Review of Estimated Attributable Healthcare Costs. Thrombosis Research, 137, 3-10.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2015.11.033
[4] Sebastian, T., Spirk, D., Engelberger, R.P., et al. (2019) Inci-dence of Stent Thrombosis after Endovascular Treatment of Iliofemoral or Caval Veins in Patients with the Postthrom-botic Syndrome. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 119, 2064-2073.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0039-1697955
[5] Rabinovich, A., Cohen, J.M., Prandoni, P., et al. (2014) Association between Thrombophilia and the Post-Thrombotic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 12, 14-23.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12447
[6] Yu, T., Song, J., Yu, L., et al. (2023) A Systematic Evaluation and Me-ta-Analysis of Early Prediction of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 10, Article ID: 1250480.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2023.1250480
[7] VisonÀ, A., Quere, I., Mazzolai, L., et al. (2021) Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. VASA, 50, 331-340.
https://doi.org/10.1024/0301-1526/a000946
[8] 刘锋, 王仁鸿, 孙岩. 深静脉血栓形成置管溶栓术后发生重度血栓后综合征的危险因素分析及临床预测模型构建[J]. 中国现代普通外科进展, 2021, 24(12): 958-963.
[9] Kahn, S.R., Shrier, I., Julian, J.A., et al. (2008) Determinants and Time Course of the Postthrombotic Syndrome after Acute Deep Venous Thrombosis. Annals of Internal Medicine, 149, 698-707.
https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-149-10-200811180-00004
[10] Tick, L.W., Doggen, C.J., Rosendaal, F.R., et al. (2010) Predictors of the Post-Thrombotic Syndrome with Non-Invasive Venous Examinations in Patients 6 Weeks after a First Episode of Deep Vein Thrombosis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 8, 2685-2692.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2010.04065.x
[11] Stain, M., Schönauer, V., Minar, E., et al. (2005) The Post-Thrombotic Syndrome: Risk Factors and Impact on the Course of Thrombotic Disease. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 3, 2671-2676.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2005.01648.x
[12] Cowell, G.W., King, S.C., Reid, J.H., et al. (2016) Long-Term Adverse Effects Associated with Isolated Below-Knee Deep-Vein Thrombosis: A 10-Year Follow-Up Study. Clinical Radiology, 71, 369-374.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crad.2015.12.014
[13] Rabinovich, A., Ducruet, T. and Kahn, S.R. (2018) Development of a Clinical Prediction Model for the Postthrombotic Syndrome in a Prospective Cohort of Patients with Proximal Deep Vein Thrombosis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 16, 262-270.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.13909
[14] MÉAn, M., Limacher, A., Alatri, A., et al. (2018) Derivation and Validation of a Prediction Model for Risk Stratification of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in Elderly Patients with a First Deep Vein Thrombosis. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 118, 1419-1427.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1661392
[15] 黄天安, 金泳海, 梁黎, 等. 下肢深静脉血栓形成后综合征风险列线图预测模型建立[J]. 介入放射学杂志, 2022, 31(1): 35-38.
[16] Galanaud, J.P., Holcroft, C.A., Rodger, M.A., et al. (2013) Predictors of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in a Population with a First Deep Vein Thrombosis and No Primary Venous Insufficiency. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 11, 474-480.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.12106
[17] Nishimoto, Y., Yamashita, Y., Morimoto, T., et al. (2019) Risk Factors for Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in Patients with Deep Vein Thrombosis: From the COMMAND VTE Registry. Heart Vessels, 34, 669-677.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00380-018-1277-3
[18] Wik, H.S., Jacobsen, A.F., Sandvik, L., et al. (2012) Prevalence and Predictors for Post-Thrombotic Syndrome 3 to 16 Years after Pregnancy-Related Venous Thrombosis: A Popula-tion-Based, Cross-Sectional, Case-Control Study. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 10, 840-847.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04690.x
[19] Galanaud, J.P., Bertoletti, L., Amitrano, M., et al. (2018) Predictors of Post-Thrombotic Ulcer after Acute DVT: The RIETE Registry. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 118, 320-328.
https://doi.org/10.1160/TH17-08-0598
[20] Agrawal, V. and Kim, E.S.H. (2019) Risk of Recurrent Ve-nous Thromboembolism after an Initial Episode: Risk Stratification and Implications for Long-Term Treatment. Current Cardiology Reports, 21, Article No. 24.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-019-1111-2
[21] Amin, E.E., Bistervels, I.M., Meijer, K., et al. (2018) Reduced In-cidence of Vein Occlusion and Postthrombotic Syndrome after Immediate Compression for Deep Vein Thrombosis. Blood, 132, 2298-2304.
https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2018-03-836783
[22] Dronkers, C.E.A., Mol, G.C., Maraziti, G., et al. (2018) Pre-dicting Post-Thrombotic Syndrome with Ultrasonographic Follow-Up after Deep Vein Thrombosis: A Systematic Re-view and Meta-Analysis. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 118, 1428-1438.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1666859
[23] Huang, H., Gu, J.P., Shi, H.F., et al. (2018) Assessment of the Probability of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in Patients with Lower Extremity Deep Venous Thrombosis. Scientific Reports, 8, Article No. 12663.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-30645-w
[24] Iding, A.F.J., Kremers, B.M.M., Pallares Robles, A., et al. (2023) Residual Venous Obstruction as an Indicator of Clinical Outcomes Following Deep Vein Thrombosis: A Man-agement Study. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 123, 763- 772.
https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2059-4737
[25] Fox, M.A. and Kahn, S.R. (2008) Postthrombotic Syndrome in Relation to Vena Cava Filter Placement: A Systematic Review. Journal of Vascular and Interventional Radiology, 19, 981-985.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvir.2008.03.022
[26] Ferreira, T., Huber, S.C., De Moraes Martinelli, B., et al. (2020) Low Prevalence of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in Patients Treated with Rivaroxaban. Vascular Pharmacology, 124, Ar-ticle ID: 106608.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vph.2019.106608
[27] Li, R., Yuan, M., Cheng, J., et al. (2020) Risk of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome after Deep Vein Thrombosis Treated with Rivaroxaban versus Vitamin-K Antagonists: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Thrombosis Research, 196, 340- 348.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2020.09.014
[28] Chitsike, R.S., Rodger, M.A., Kovacs, M.J., et al. (2012) Risk of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome after Subtherapeutic Warfarin Anticoagulation for a First Unprovoked Deep Vein Thrombosis: Results from the REVERSE Study. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 10, 2039-2044.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1538-7836.2012.04872.x
[29] Labropoulos, N., Gasparis, A.P. and Tassiopoulos, A.K. (2009) Prospective Evaluation of the Clinical Deterioration in Post-Thrombotic Limbs. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 50, 826-830.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvs.2009.05.059
[30] Wik, H.S., Jacobsen, A.F., Mowinckel, M.C., et al. (2016) The Role of Inflammation in Post-Thrombotic Syndrome after Pregnancy-Related Deep Vein Thrombosis: A Popula-tion-Based, Cross-Sectional Study. Thrombosis Research, 138, 16-21.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2015.12.014
[31] McLeod, B., Lim, H.Y., Nandurkar, H., et al. (2022) Overall Hemostatic Potential Assay Detects Risk of Progression to Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in Anticoagulated Patients Fol-lowing Deep Vein Thrombosis. Diagnostics (Basel), 12, Article No. 3165.
https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics12123165
[32] Mrozinska, S., Cieslik, J., Broniatowska, E., et al. (2018) Ele-vated Leptin and Decreased Adiponectin Independently Predict the Post-Thrombotic Syndrome in Obese and Non-Obese Patients. Scientific Reports, 8, Article No. 6938.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25135-y
[33] Potere, N., Abbate, A., Kanthi, Y., et al. (2023) Inflammasome Signaling, Thromboinflammation, and Venous Thromboembolism. JACC: Basic to Translational Science, 8, 1245-1261.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacbts.2023.03.017
[34] Rabinovich, A., Cohen, J.M. and Kahn, S.R. (2015) Predictive Value of Markers of Inflammation in the Postthrombotic Syndrome: A Systematic Review: Inflammatory Biomarkers and PTS. Thrombosis Research, 136, 289-297.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2015.06.024
[35] De Franciscis, S., Gallelli, L., Amato, B., et al. (2016) Plasma MMP and TIMP Evaluation in Patients with Deep Venous Thrombosis: Could They Have a Predictive Role in the De-velopment of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome? International Wound Journal, 13, 1237-1245.
https://doi.org/10.1111/iwj.12489
[36] Rabinovich, A., Cohen, J.M. and Kahn, S.R. (2014) The Predictive Value of Markers of Fibrinolysis and Endothelial Dysfunction in the Post Thrombotic Syndrome. A Systematic Review. Throm-bosis and Haemostasis, 111, 1031-1040.
https://doi.org/10.1160/TH13-11-0931
[37] Siudut, J., Grela, M., Wypasek, E., et al. (2016) Reduced Plasma Fi-brin Clot Permeability and Susceptibility to Lysis Are Associated with Increased Risk of Postthrombotic Syndrome. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 14, 784-793.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jth.13264
[38] Bittar, L.F., Silva, L.Q.D., Orsi, F.L.A., et al. (2020) Increased Inflammation and Endothelial Markers in Patients with Late Severe Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. PLOS ONE, 15, E0227150.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227150
[39] Makedonov, I., Kahn, S.R., Abdulrehman, J., et al. (2022) Pre-vention of the Postthrombotic Syndrome with Anticoagulation: A Narrative Review. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 122, 1255-1264.
https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1711-1263
[40] Bradbury, C., Fletcher, K., Sun, Y., et al. (2020) A Ran-domised Controlled Trial of Extended Anticoagulation Treatment versus Standard Treatment for the Prevention of Recur-rent Venous Thromboembolism (VTE) and Post-Throm- botic Syndrome in Patients Being Treated for a First Episode of Unprovoked VTE (The ExACT Study). British Journal of Haematology, 188, 962-975.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjh.16275
[41] Haig, Y., Enden, T., Grøtta, O., et al. (2016) Post-Thrombotic Syndrome after Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis for Deep Vein Thrombosis (CaVenT): 5-Year Follow-Up Results of an Open-Label, Randomised Controlled Trial. The Lancet Haematology, 3, E64-E71.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3026(15)00248-3
[42] Sharifi, M., Bay, C., Mehdipour, M., et al. (2012) Thrombus Obliteration by Rapid Percutaneous Endovenous Intervention in Deep Venous Occlusion (TORPEDO) Trial: Midterm Results. Journal of Endovascular Therapy, 19, 273-280.
https://doi.org/10.1583/11-3674MR.1
[43] Vedantham, S., Goldhaber, S.Z., Julian, J.A., et al. (2017) Pharma-comechanical Catheter-Directed Thrombolysis for Deep-Vein Thrombosis. The New England Journal of Medicine, 377, 2240-2252.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1615066
[44] Pompilio, G., Monreal, M., Pesavento, R., et al. (2022) Me-ta-Analyses of Sulodexide and Other Drugs in Prevention and Treatment of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. European Re-view for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 26, 9372- 9381.
[45] Caiano, L.M., Drury, T., Zahrai, A., et al. (2023) Role of Statins in the Prevention of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome after a Deep Vein Thrombosis Event: A Systematic Re-view and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 21, 944-952.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtha.2022.12.008
[46] Morling, J.R., Yeoh, S.E. and Kolbach, D.N. (2018) Rutosides for Prevention of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 11, Cd005626.
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005626.pub4
[47] Skervin, A.L., Thapar, A., Franchini, A.J., et al. (2016) Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Utility of Graduated Compression Stockings in Prevention of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, 51, 838-845.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejvs.2016.02.022
[48] Galanaud, J.P., Genty-Vermorel, C., Rolland, C., et al. (2020) Compression Stockings to Prevent Postthrombotic Syndrome: Literature Overview and Presentation of the CELEST Trial. Research and Practice in Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 4, 1239-1250.
https://doi.org/10.1002/rth2.12445
[49] Appelen, D., Van Loo, E., Prins, M.H., et al. (2017) Compression Therapy for Prevention of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 9, CD004174.
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004174.pub3
[50] Kahn, S.R., Shapiro, S., Wells, P.S., et al. (2014) Com-pression Stockings to Prevent Post-Thrombotic Syndrome: A Randomised Placebo-Controlled Trial. The Lancet, 383, 880-888.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61902-9
[51] Mol, G.C., Van De Ree, M.A., Klok, F.A., et al. (2016) One versus Two Years of Elastic Compression Stockings for Prevention of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome (OCTAVIA Study): Randomised Controlled Trial. BMJ, 353, I2691.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i2691
[52] Jasionowska, S., Turner, B.R.H., Machin, M., et al. (2022) Systematic Re-view of Exercise Therapy in the Management of Post-Thrombotic Syndrome. Phlebology, 37, 695-700.
https://doi.org/10.1177/02683555221129738