对于早期不可切除结直肠癌肝转移治疗的研究进展
Research Advances on the Treatment of Liver Metastases from Early Stage Unresectable Colorectal Cancer
DOI: 10.12677/ACM.2023.13122626, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 248  浏览: 406 
作者: 王承相:青海大学研究生院,青海 西宁;王 成*:青海大学附属医院肿瘤外科一,青海 西宁
关键词: 不可切除结直肠癌肝转移治疗Unresectable Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastases Treatment
摘要: 结直肠癌肝转移是结直肠癌治疗的重点和难点之一。对于结直肠癌肝转移有多种治疗方式,其中手术切除、化学治疗、靶向治疗、免疫疗法、射频消融和微波消融、肝动脉灌注化疗,以及肝移植是有效的治疗方法。在这篇综述中,笔者现就对于早期不可切除结直肠癌肝转移治疗的现状以及研究进展作一综述。
Abstract: Colorectal cancer liver metastasis is one of the key points and difficulties in colorectal cancer treat-ment. There are various treatment modalities for liver metastasis of colorectal cancer, among which surgical resection, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, immunotherapy, radiofrequency ablation and microwave ablation, hepatic artery perfusion chemotherapy, and liver transplantation are effective treatments. In this review, the author now presents an overview of the current status and research progress in the treatment of liver metastases from early unresectable colorectal cancer.
文章引用:王承相, 王成. 对于早期不可切除结直肠癌肝转移治疗的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2023, 13(12): 18682-18691. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2023.13122626

1. 引言

结直肠癌(CRC)是世界上第三大常见癌症诊断 [1] ,据估计,1年将发生超过9万例新的结直肠癌(包括肛门)病例和935,000万例死亡,约占十分之一的癌症病例和死亡病例。总体而言,结直肠在发病率方面排名第三,但在死亡率方面排名第二 [2] 。结直肠癌肝转移(CRLM)是一个预后因素,控制转移对改善远期预后至关重要。在随访期间,约30%的结直肠癌患者发生肝转移,并导致至少三分之二的结直肠癌死亡 [3] 。15%~25%的结直肠癌患者在确诊时即合并肝转移,另有15%~25%的患者会在结直肠癌根治术后发生肝转移,其中绝大多数(80%~90%)的肝转移灶初始无法获得根治性切除 [4] 。CRLM是结直肠癌治疗的重点和难点之一。对于CRLM有多种治疗方式,其中手术切除、化学治疗、靶向治疗、免疫疗法、射频消融和微波消融、肝动脉灌注化疗,以及肝移植是有效的治疗方法,对于CRLM患者,手术切除仍然是主要的治疗方法,可以显著提高生存率,这是在人口水平上表现出来的 [5] [6] ,然而,前期手术只有大约10%~20%的患者诊断为CRLM [7] [8] 。因此,通常考虑其他治疗方法。研究发现,除生物制剂外,新辅助化疗可增加CRLM的可切除性,并改善一些患者的预后,特别是那些最初无法切除的患者 [8] [9] 。最近,由于生物疗法的新兴作用,结直肠癌的治疗趋向于更加个性化 [10] 。在这篇综述中,笔者现就对于早期不可切除结直肠癌肝转移治疗的现状以及研究进展作一综述。

2. 化学治疗

有效的化疗方案的存在导致肝转移瘤手术切除前术前新辅助全身治疗的使用增加。然而,对于最初可切除的CRLM患者的具体治疗方法仍未达成普遍共识。从理论上讲,对这些患者进行新辅助化疗有助于在转移切除术前评估疾病的自然病史,减小肿瘤大小和切除范围,通过治疗微转移降低复发率,并根据化疗的初始反应指导后期的治疗计划 [11] [12] 。有研究提出可切除CRLM患者围手术期6个月以氟嘧啶为基础的治疗方案 [13] 。一些回顾性研究表明,在可切除疾病的情况下,围手术期化疗有潜在的生存益处;然而,这在对照试验中没有得到证实。在一项基于人群的回顾性分析中,对1426名德国CRC-LM患者进行了为期10年的随访,多因素分析显示,可切除疾病患者围手术期化疗可显著改善总生存结局 [14] 。最近的另一项回顾性分析检查了163例接受新辅助全身化疗(5-氟尿嘧啶为主的方案,一些患者另外接受贝伐单抗或西妥昔单抗)的CRC-LM患者,然后切除转移灶。本研究发现,术后加入辅助全身化疗(相同方案)可显著提高DFS和总生存期,高危患者获益最大 [15] 。总而言之,尽管缺乏确凿的证据支持围手术期化疗可提高生存率,但这种方法仍被许多团体推荐 [16] [17] 。对于可切除的CRLM患者,理想的围手术期全身化疗方案仍有争议。大多数指南建议使用氟尿嘧啶为主的化疗联合奥沙利铂。欧洲肿瘤医学学会(ESMO)指南推荐使用FOLFOX或XELOX [18] 。转移性结直肠癌的一线化疗主要包括含有奥沙利铂和/或伊立替康的氟尿嘧啶方案。目前的NCCN指南将FOLFOX(氟尿嘧啶,亚叶酸钙和奥沙利铂),FOLFIRI (氟尿嘧啶,亚叶酸钙和伊立替康),XELOX (卡培他滨和奥沙利铂)和FOLFOXIRI (氟尿嘧啶,亚叶酸钙,奥沙利铂和伊立替康)列为全身治疗的推荐疗程 [19] 。

3. 靶向治疗

3.1. 贝伐珠单抗

贝伐珠单抗是一种单克隆抗体,选择性地与循环的VEGF-A结合并抑制其与VEGFR结合的能力。这一过程导致现有肿瘤脉管系统的消退,减少新血管的发育以防止肿瘤生长,并使肿瘤脉管系统正常化以改善化疗递送 [20] [21] 。AVF2107试验将813例既往未经治疗的转移性结直肠癌患者随机分组,接受贝伐珠单抗和伊立替康/氟尿嘧啶/亚叶酸钙(IFL)或单独化疗 [22] 。与单独化疗相比,贝伐珠单抗/IFL联合治疗改善了中位OS (20.3个月 vs 15.6个月)、中位PFS (10.6个月 vs 6.2个月)和中位缓解持续时间(10.4个月 vs 7.1个月)。根据该试验结果,FDA批准贝伐珠单抗联合氟尿嘧啶化疗作为转移性结直肠癌患者的一线治疗 [22] 。但需要注意的是,贝伐珠单抗可导致伤口愈合不良,并增加手术出血风险 [23] [24] 。

3.2. 阿柏西普

阿柏西普是一种人重组融合蛋白,可作为VEGF-A、VEGF-B和PGF的诱饵受体 [25] 。阿柏西普对 VEGF-A 的亲和力高于贝伐珠单抗或 VEGFR。此外,除VEGF外,其靶向PIGF的能力可能比其他抗血管生成药物更有效 [26] 。针对转移性结直肠癌患者的II.期试验未能显示阿柏西普作为单药治疗的有效性 [27] 。鉴于贝伐珠单抗联合化疗作为转移性结直肠癌一线治疗的成功,一项II.期试验随机选取236例转移性结直肠癌患者,接受改良FOLFOX6联合或不联合阿柏西普作为一线治疗(AFFIRM试验) [28] 。两个治疗组之间的PFS没有差异,添加阿柏西普与更高的毒性(高血压、蛋白尿和深静脉血栓形成/肺栓塞)相关。

3.3. 雷莫西鲁单抗

Ramucirumab是一种人源化单克隆药物,可与VEGFR-2结合并阻断VEGF-A和VEGF-B的结合。III.期REISE试验纳入了1072例一线治疗进展的转移性结直肠癌患者,随机分配患者接受FOLFIRI联合雷莫西单抗与安慰剂 [29] 。与安慰剂队列相比,ramucirumab队列的中位PFS (5.7个月对4.5个月)和OS (13.3个月对11.7个月)有所改善。Ramucirumab被FDA批准用于在FOLFOX和贝伐珠单抗上进展的转移性结直肠癌患者。最近,III期试验证明了阿柏西普、雷莫西单抗或继续使用贝伐珠单抗作为转移性结直肠癌二线治疗的有效性。这三种二线化疗方案均获批。不幸的是,很少有数据直接比较这三种抗血管生成药物。贝伐珠单抗主要与FOLFOX或FOLFIRI进行比较,而阿柏西普仅与FOLFIRI进行比较 [30] 。在RAISE试验中,贝伐珠单抗进展后VEGF-D水平高与雷莫西单抗疗效相关,这意味着通过进一步研究,可能有一种通过活检、遗传分析和/或肿瘤标志物为患者选择最佳二线治疗的方法 [29] 。

3.4. 西妥昔单抗

西妥昔单抗是一种嵌合小鼠–人单克隆抗体,与EGFR的外部结构域结合。EGFR受体然后被内化和降解。根据BOND试验的结果,西妥昔单抗目前已被批准用于治疗转移性结直肠癌 [31] 。这项研究随机分配了329名在伊立替康方案上进展的转移性结直肠癌患者,接受西妥昔单抗和伊立替康治疗或西妥昔单抗单药治疗。与西妥昔单抗单药治疗队列相比,接受联合治疗的患者中位进展时间更长(4.5个月 vs 1.5个月,p < 0.001),但中位OS相似(8.6个月 vs 6.9个月,p = 0.48)。CRYSTAL III期试验将1198例EGFR阳性转移性结直肠癌患者随机分组,接受FOLFIRI联合西妥昔单抗或单独使用FOLFIRI作为一线治疗 [32] 。与单独使用FOLFIRI (8个月)相比,FOLFIRI/西妥昔单抗队列中患者的中位PFS有所改善(9.8个月),但在OS方面没有差异。在难治性转移性结直肠癌和免疫组织化学(IHC)可检测到EGFR表达的患者中,西妥昔单抗的生存获益优于最佳支持性治疗 [33] 。FIRE-3 III期试验比较了FOLFIRI/贝伐珠单抗与FOLFIRI/西妥昔单抗在KRAS野生型转移性转移性结直肠癌患者中的效果 [34] 。FOLFIRI/西妥昔单抗的中位OS为28.7个月,而FOLFIRI/贝伐珠单抗队列为25个月(p = 0.017)。

3.5. 帕尼木单抗

帕尼木单抗是一种靶向EGFR的完全人源化单克隆抗体,与西妥昔单抗相比,超敏反应的风险更低 [35] 。PRIME试验比较了KRAS野生型转移性结直肠癌患者中单独使用FOLFOX与FOLFOX/帕尼单抗 [36] 。初步结果表明,帕尼单抗队列的ORR较高,中位PFS有所改善。更新的分析证实了panitumumab队列的中位OS有所改善。此外,这项研究进一步表明,在抗EGFR治疗之前,KRAS测试对患者至关重要。PARADIGM试验比较了FOLFIRI联合帕尼单抗与贝伐珠单抗在RAS野生型转移性结直肠癌患者中的应用 [37] 。与FOLFIRI/贝伐珠单抗相比,接受FOLFIRI/panitumumab治疗的患者的中位OS分别有所改善(36.2个月和31.3个月,p = 0.03)。

3.6. 帕博利珠单抗

响应促炎细胞因子,程序性死亡配体1 (PD-L1)在体细胞上表达,并与程序性死亡1 (PD-1)受体结合,与T细胞、B细胞、自然杀伤细胞、树突状细胞和髓源性抑制细胞结合。结合时,T细胞迁移、增殖和细胞毒素分泌受到抑制 [38] 。Pembrolizumab是一种PD-1抑制剂,也是第一个被证明对dMMR mCRC有效的ICI。在几项成功的I期试验后,II期KEYNOTE-177试验比较了帕博利珠单抗与化疗联合或不联合贝伐珠单抗作为MSI转移性结直肠癌患者的一线治疗 [39] 。与化疗/贝伐珠单抗(16.5个月)相比,帕博利珠单抗的中位PFS (8.2个月)更高。帕博利珠单抗被批准作为一线治疗dMMR/MSI高转移性结直肠癌。

3.7. 纳武利尤单抗

纳武利尤单抗也是一种PD-1抑制剂,于2017年被批准用于MSI高或dMMR mCRC。Checkmate-142试验用纳武利尤单抗治疗了74例难治性MSI mCRC患者 [40] 。中位随访12个月时,ORR为31.1%,OS率为73.4%。Checkmate-142试验的另一个组成部分评估了纳武利尤单抗和CTLA-4抑制剂在初治MSI转移性结直肠癌患者中的应用 [41] 。中位随访29个月时,ORR为69%。未达到中位OS,但24个月的OS率为79%。这些数据表明,联合ICI可能对MSI转移性结直肠癌患者更有效。

3.8. 利洛木单抗

利洛木单抗是一种抗HGF的单克隆抗体,主要用于胃癌和胃食管癌。关于利洛木单抗(RILOMET-1和RILOMET-2)的III期研究因疾病相关死亡人数增加而停止 [42] [43] [44] 。在一项针对KRAS野生型转移性结直肠癌患者的随机I/II期试验中,评估了帕尼单抗与利洛木单抗、加尼单抗(抗胰岛素样生长因子1受体)或安慰剂的联合治疗。帕尼木单抗和利洛木单抗联合用药的ORR为31%,而接受帕尼单抗/加尼单抗治疗的患者ORR为22% [45] 。

3.9. 奥那珠单抗

Onartuzumab是一种针对MET受体的单克隆抗体,已在几种恶性肿瘤中进行了评估。遗憾的是,奥那珠单抗在III期试验中未能证明疗效 [46] [47] 。接受FOLFOX/onartuzumab或FOLFOX/安慰剂治疗的转移性结直肠癌患者的结局没有差异。对IHC染色MET阳性患者的亚分析同样未能证明onartuzumab的效果。因此,MET IHC不是预测性生物标志物 [47] 。

4. 免疫疗法

目前已在中国上市或由美国食品药品管理局(Food and Drug Administration, FDA)批准的ICI主要包括程序性死亡受体-1 (programmed death receptor-1, PD-1)单抗(帕博丽珠单抗/Pembrolizumab、纳武单抗/Nivolumab、Libtayo、特瑞普利单抗/Toripalimab、信迪利单抗/Sintilimab)、程序性死亡配体1 (programmed death-ligand 1, PD-L1)单抗(阿特珠单抗/Atezolizumab、德瓦鲁单抗/Durvalumab、阿维单抗/Avelumab)以及细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关蛋白4 (cytotoxic T lymphocyte associated antigen-4, CTLA-4)单抗(伊匹木单抗/Ipilimumab)。ICI适用于微卫星高度不稳定(micrositellite instability-high, MSI-H)/错配修复缺陷(deficient mismatch repair, dMMR)的肿瘤患者 [48] 。既往研究表明,在CRC患者整体中,MSI-H/dMMR并不少见;相比Ⅳ期患者,MSI-H/dMMR更多地存在于II、III期患者中(4%比20%比12%) [49] 。

5. 射频消融和微波消融

射频消融技术(radiofrequency ab-lation, RFA)在临床上证实具有与手术切除相类似的安全可行的微创治疗。RFA治疗不可切除CLM主要在CT、MR或US引导下采用经皮、经腹腔镜和开腹3种途径将电极刺入瘤体通过射频波转化为热能使肿瘤组织发生热 凝固坏死而达到治疗目的。经皮入路法主要用于CLM手术切除后残留、复发的小转移灶及不适于开腹或腹腔镜行RFA的患者,但肝脏边缘与结肠、胃、小肠相邻的转移灶不宜使用 [50] 。研究表明采取射频消融技术治疗不可切除结直肠癌肝转移患者,优势在于:① 射频消融治疗过程中穿刺操作可于影像学引导下进行,因此定位更加精确,且能显著降低因盲穿所致穿刺失败率,同时亦能有效降低周边胃肠道脏器组织损伤、胆心反射、气胸、胆漏、出血等并发症发生率。② 可有效避免传统经皮肝穿刺时产生热效应而损伤腹壁。③ 能清晰观察射频消融范围大小,若发现范围不足则可及时补充追加,继而极大避免肿瘤病灶残留,不仅利于全面了解病情,且可明显提升肿瘤病灶治疗彻底性。④ 操作简单方便,治疗时间短,且创伤小,患者治疗后康复较快 [51] 。Tomoya Tago等人研究发现 [52] 不能切除或不能手术者行射频消融联合化疗,适合者行手术切除。接受RFA、切除和化疗的患者的中位总生存期(OS)分别为44.9个月、49.5个月和11.6个月。与切除相比,RFA导致的生存期明显缩短(p = 0.027),但与化疗相比,生存期更长(p = 0.003)。RFA组和切除组的5年生存率分别为34.6%和42.4% (p = 0.508)。

6. 肝动脉灌注化疗

由于肝转移瘤的大部分血液供应来自肝动脉,而正常的肝组织主要由门静脉灌注,因此已经开发了肝动脉灌注化疗(HAIC)以确保细胞毒性药物的局部区域浓度更高。最近的一项回顾性研究比较了基于奥沙利铂方案的术前化疗后静脉注射或肝动脉给药后的组织学反应 [53] 。这项研究证实,与未接受奥沙利铂HAIC的患者相比,接受奥沙利铂HAIC的患者的完全病理反应(CPR)显着更高(分别为33%和10%,p = 0.03),动脉输注是多变量分析中CPR的唯一预测指标。在不可切除的CLM患者中,继发切除率与RR相关 [54] 。因此,RR越高,预期的切除率就越高。

氟脱氧尿苷主要用于HAIC,因为它的半衰期短(<10分钟)且肝脏首过提取率高(94%~99%)。然而,其胆道相关毒性可能会限制其给药。另一种方法是使用动脉内给药较新的开发分子。在这一领域,HAIC与奥沙利铂取得了最重要的进展。关于肝毒性,与静脉用药相比,接受HAIC联合奥沙利铂治疗的患者发生严重奥沙利铂相关病变(即存在2级和3级SOS和/或NRH)的发生率更高,分别为66% vs 20% (p < 0.001) [55] 。HAIC 被认为在技术上比全身化疗要求更高,并且仅用于肝复发风险高的特定患者。在确定的不良预后因素中,CLM的数量是最广泛接受的因素,并且包含在迄今为止验证的大多数预后评分中。在这些评分中,当切除的CLM数量为98个或更高时,肝脏复发的风险显着增加。我们最近报道了一项回顾性分析结果,纳入了4例肝复发高风险患者(≥5例切除CLM),术后接受含奥沙利铂的HAIC加全身性44-FU (n = 54)或现代全身化疗(FOLFOX或FOLFIRI) (n = 52)治疗。基于奥沙利铂的辅助治疗是可行的,在8%的患者中治疗超过四个周期(平均,1 ± 7.49)。与未接受HAIC的患者相比,接受HAIC的患者接受21年肝DFS的时间明显更长(分别为0%和0008%,p = 3.33),5年DFS也是如此(分别为0% vs 0001%,p < 0.2)。在多因素分析中,辅助 HAIC和R0切除切缘状态是DFS延长的唯一独立预后因素 [56] 。

7. 肝移植

一些CRLM由于靠近不能牺牲的重要结构,或由于残余肝体积不足,仍然无法切除。然而,与单独化疗相比,肝切除术的有利结果提出了一个问题,即全肝切除术,然后进行肝移植,是否可能在不可切除的肝转移瘤的治疗中占有一席之地。21例患者接受了已故供体LT,1年、3年和5年OS分别为95%、68%和60%,因此在一项单独接受化疗的不可切除CRLM患者的比较回顾性队列中,OS优于19% [57] 。中位复发时间为6个月,所有随访时间超过11个月的患者均出现复发,最常见于肺部 [58] 。同样,Toso等人 [59] 报告了12名接受OLT治疗不可切除肝转移的患者的结局,5年OS为50%,4名患者中有12名在48个月时没有复发迹象。

8. 结语

手术完全切除原发灶及肝转移灶仍是目前治愈结直肠癌肝转移的最佳方法,在不可切除的结直肠癌肝转移患者的治疗中,存在多种选择,包括化学治疗、靶向治疗、免疫疗法、射频和微波消融、肝动脉灌注化疗,以及肝移植,这些都被证明是有效的治疗方法。这些治疗方式为医疗专业人员提供了广泛的选择,以便根据患者的具体情况和疾病进展程度来制定个体化的治疗计划。值得注意的是,这些方法不仅仅可以单独使用,还可以在某些情况下进行组合以增强疗效,进一步凸显了在处理这一复杂病症时的治疗多样性。这篇论文将深入探讨每种治疗方法的效力、适用情况以及可能的副作用,以帮助临床医生更好地为患者选择最合适的治疗策略。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

参考文献

[1] International Agency for Research on Cancer, WHO (2020) Estimated Number of New Cases in 2020, Worldwide, Both Sexes, All Ages.
https://gco.iarc.fr/
[2] Sung, H., Ferlay, J., Siegel, R.L., Laversanne, M., Soerjomataram, I., Jemal, A. and Bray, F. (2021) Global Cancer Statistics 2020: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 71, 209-249.
https://doi.org/10.3322/caac.21660
[3] Kopetz, S., Chang, G.J., Overman, M.J., Eng, C., Sargent, D.J., Larson, D.W., Grothey, A., Vauthey, J.N., Nagorney, D.M. and McWilliams, R.R. (2009) Improved Survival in Metastatic Col-orectal Cancer Is Associated with Adoption of Hepatic Resection and Improved Chemotherapy. Journal of Clinical On-cology, 27, 3677-3683.
https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2008.20.5278
[4] 中华医学会外科分会胃肠外科学组, 中华医学会外科分会结直肠外科学组, 中国抗癌协会大肠癌专业委员会, 等. 结直肠癌肝转移诊断和综合治疗指南(V2018) [J]. 中华结直肠疾病电子杂志, 2018, 7(4): 302-314.
[5] De Ridder, J.A.M., Van Der Stok, E.P., Mekenkamp, L.J., et al. (2016) Management of Liver Metastases in Colorectal Cancer Patients: A Retrospective Case-Control Study of Systemic Thera-py versus Liver Resection. European Journal of Cancer, 59, 13-21.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2016.02.003
[6] Lai, H.W., Wei, J.C.C., Hung, H.C., et al. (2019) Impact of Treat-ment Modality on Clinical Outcome in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Patients Stratified by Metastatic Sites. Postgraduate Medicine, 131, 163-170.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00325481.2019.1568016
[7] Gill, S., Liu, D.M., Green, H.M., et al. (2018) Beyond the Knife: The Evolving Nonsurgical Management of Oligometastatic Colorectal Cancer. American Society of Clinical On-cology Educational Book, 38, 209-219.
https://doi.org/10.1200/EDBK_200941
[8] Isoniemi, H. and Österlund, P. (2011) Surgery Combined with Onco-logical Treatments in Liver Metastases from Colorectal Cancer. Scandinavian Journal of Surgery, 100, 35-41.
https://doi.org/10.1177/145749691110000107
[9] Fiorentini, G., Sarti, D., Aliberti, C., et al. (2017) Multidisci-plinary Approach of Colorectal Cancer Liver Metastases. World Journal of Clinical Oncology, 8, 190-202.
https://doi.org/10.5306/wjco.v8.i3.190
[10] Tran, N.H., Cavalcante, L.L., Lubner, S.J., et al. (2015) Precision Medicine in Colorectal Cancer: The Molecular Profile Alters Treatment Strategies. Therapeutic Advances in Medical On-cology, 7, 252-262.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1758834015591952
[11] Chow, F.C.L. and Chok, K.S.H. (2019) Colorectal Liver Metas-tases: An Update on Multidisciplinary Approach. World Journal of Hepatology, 11, 150-172.
https://doi.org/10.4254/wjh.v11.i2.150
[12] Chua, T.C., Saxena, A., Liauw, W., et al. (2010) Systematic Review of Randomized and Nonrandomized Trials of the Clinical Response and Outcomes of Neoadjuvant Systemic Chemotherapy for Resectable Colorectal Liver Metastases. Annals of Surgical Oncology, 17, 492-501.
https://doi.org/10.1245/s10434-009-0781-1
[13] Abdel-Rahman, O. and Cheung, W.Y. (2018) Integrating Sys-temic Therapies into the Multimodality Treatment of Resectable Colorectal Liver Metastases. Gastroenterology Research and Practice, 2018, Article ID: 4326082.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/4326082
[14] Hackl, C., Loss, M., Klinkhammer-Schalke, M., et al. (2014) Treatment of Colorectal Liver Metastases in Germany: A Ten-Year Population-Based Analysis of 5772 Cases of Primary Colorectal Adenocarcinoma. BMC Cancer, 14, Article No. 810.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-810
[15] Wang, Y., Wang, Z.Q., Wang, F.H., et al. (2017) The Role of Adjuvant Chemotherapy for Colorectal Liver Metastasectomy after Pre-Operative Chemotherapy: Is the Treatment Worthwhile? Journal of Cancer, 8, 1179-1186.
https://doi.org/10.7150/jca.18091
[16] Ciliberto, D., Prati, U., Roveda, L., et al. (2012) Role of Systemic Chemo-therapy in the Management of Resected or Resectable Colorectal Liver Metastases: A Systematic Review and Me-ta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Oncology Reports, 27, 1849-1856.
[17] Khoo, E., O’Neill, S., Brown, E., et al. (2016) Systematic Review of Systemic Adjuvant, Neoadjuvant and Perioperative Chemotherapy for Resectable Colorectal-Liver Metastases. HPB, 18, 485-493.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hpb.2016.03.001
[18] Van Cutsem, E., Cervantes, A., Adam, R., et al. (2016) ESMO Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. Annals of Oncology, 27, 1386-1422.
https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdw235
[19] National Comprehensive Cancer Network (2012) NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology—Antiemesis. National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 1, 1-43.
[20] Goel, S., Wong, A.H. and Jain, R.K. (2012) Vascular Normalization as a Therapeutic Strategy for Malignant and Nonmalignant Disease. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 2, a006486.
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006486
[21] Rosen, L.S., Jacobs, I.A. and Burkes, R.L. (2017) Bevacizumab in Colorectal Cancer: Current Role in Treatment and the Potential of Biosimilars. Targeted Oncology, 12, 599-610.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11523-017-0518-1
[22] Hurwitz, H., Fehrenbacher, L., Novotny, W., Cartwright, T., Hainsworth, J., Heim, W., Berlin, J., Baron, A., Griffing, S., Holmgren, E., et al. (2004) Bevacizumab plus Irinotecan, Fluorouracil, and Leucovorin for Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 350, 2335-2342.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa032691
[23] Gordon, C.R., Rojavin, Y., Patel, M., Zins, J.E., Grana, G., Kann, B., Simons, R. and Atabek, U. (2009) A Review on Bevacizumab and Surgical Wound Healing: An Important Warning to All Surgeons. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 62, 707-709.
https://doi.org/10.1097/SAP.0b013e3181828141
[24] Scappaticci, F.A., Fehrenbacher, L., Cartwright, T., Hains-worth, J.D., Heim, W., Berlin, J., Kabbinavar, F., Novotny, W., Sarkar, S. and Hurwitz, H. (2005) Surgical Wound Healing Complications in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer Patients Treated with Bevacizumab. Journal of Surgical Oncology, 91, 173-180.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jso.20301
[25] Stewart, M.W. and Rosenfeld, P.J. (2008) Predicted Biological Activity of Intravitreal VEGF Trap. British Journal of Ophthalmology, 92, 667-668.
https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.2007.134874
[26] Ciombor, K.K. and Berlin, J. (2014) Aflibercept—A Decoy VEGF Receptor. Current Oncology Reports, 16, 368.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11912-013-0368-7
[27] Tang, P.A., Cohen, S.J., Kollmannsberger, C., Bjarnason, G., Vi-rik, K., MacKenzie, M.J., Lourenco, L., Wang, L., Chen, A. and Moore, M.J. (2012) Phase II Clinical and Pharmacoki-netic Study of Aflibercept in Patients with Previously Treated Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. Clinical Cancer Research, 18, 6023-6031.
https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-11-3252
[28] Folprecht, G., Pericay, C., Saunders, M.P., Thomas, A., Lopez, R., Roh, J.K., Chistyakov, V., Höhler, T., Kim, J.S., Hofheinz, R.D., et al. (2016) Oxaliplatin and 5-FU/Folinic Acid (Modified FOLFOX6) with or without Aflibercept in First-Line Treatment of Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: The AFFIRM Study. Annals of Oncology, 27, 1273-1279.
https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdw176
[29] Tabernero, J., Yoshino, T., Cohn, A.L., Obermannova, R., Bodoky, G., Garcia-Carbonero, R., Ciuleanu, T.E., Portnoy, D.C., Van Cutsem, E., Grothey, A., et al. (2015) Ramucirumab ver-sus Placebo in Combination with Second-Line FOLFIRI in Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Carcinoma That Pro-gressed during or after First-Line Therapy with Bevacizumab, Oxaliplatin, and a Fluoropyrimidine (RAISE): A Random-ised, Double-Blind, Multicentre, Phase 3 Study. The Lancet Oncology, 16, 499-508.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(15)70127-0
[30] Modest, D.P., Pant, S. and Sartore-Bianchi, A. (2019) Treatment Sequencing in Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. European Journal of Cancer, 109, 70-83.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2018.12.019
[31] Cunningham, D., Humblet, Y., Siena, S., Khayat, D., Bleiberg, H., Santoro, A., Bets, D., Mueser, M., Harstrick, A., Verslype, C., et al. (2004) Cetuximab Monotherapy and Cetuximab plus Irinotecan in Irinotecan-Refractory Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 351, 337-345.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa033025
[32] Van Cutsem, E., Köhne, C.H., Hitre, E., Zaluski, J., Chang Chien, C.R., Makhson, A., D’Haens, G., Pintér, T., Lim, R., Bodoky, G., et al. (2009) Cetuximab and Chemotherapy as Initial Treatment for Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 360, 1408-1417.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0805019
[33] Jonker, D.J., O’Callaghan, C.J., Karapetis, C.S., Zalcberg, J.R., Tu, D., Au, H.J., Berry, S.R., Krahn, M., Price, T., Simes, R.J., et al. (2007) Cetuximab for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 357, 2040-2048.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa071834
[34] Heinemann, V., von Weikersthal, L.F., Decker, T., Kiani, A., Vehling-Kaiser, U., Al-Batran, S.E., Heintges, T., Lerchenmüller, C., Kahl, C., Seipelt, G., et al. (2014) FOLFIRI plus Cetuximab versus FOLFIRI plus Bevacizumab as First-Line Treatment for Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer (FIRE-3): A Randomised, Open-Label, Phase 3 Trial. The Lancet Oncology, 15, 1065-1075.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(14)70330-4
[35] Addeo, R., Caraglia, M., Cerbone, D., Frega, N., Cimmino, G., Abbruzzese, A. and Del Prete, S. (2010) Panitumumab: A New Frontier of Target Therapy for the Treatment of Met-astatic Colorectal Cancer. Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy, 10, 499-505.
https://doi.org/10.1586/era.10.28
[36] Douillard, J.Y., Siena, S., Cassidy, J., Tabernero, J., Burkes, R., Barugel, M., Humblet, Y., Bodoky, G., Cunningham, D., Jassem, J., et al. (2014) Final Results from PRIME: Randomized Phase III Study of Panitumumab with FOLFOX4 for First-Line Treatment of Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. Annals of Oncology, 25, 1346-1355.
https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mdu141
[37] Yoshino, T., Watanabe, J., Shitara, K., Yasui, H., Ohori, H., Shioza-wa, M., Yamazaki, K., Oki, E., Sato, T., Naitoh, T., et al. (2022) Panitumumab (PAN) plus mFOLFOX6 versus Bevacizumab (BEV) plus mFOLFOX6 as First-Line Treatment in Patients with RAS Wild-Type (WT) Metastatic Colo-rectal Cancer (mCRC): Results from the Phase 3 PARADIGM Trial. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 40, LBA1.
https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2022.40.17_suppl.LBA1
[38] Ai, L., Chen, J., Yan, H., He, Q., Luo, P., Xu, Z. and Yang, X. (2020) Research Status and Outlook of PD-1/PD-L1 Inhibitors for Cancer Therapy. Drug Design, Develop-ment and Therapy, 14, 3625-3649.
https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S267433
[39] André, T., Shiu, K.K., Kim, T.W., Jensen, B.V., Jensen, L.H., Punt, C., Smith, D., Garcia-Carbonero, R., Benavides, M., Gibbs, P., et al. (2020) Pembrolizumab in Microsatel-lite-Instability-High Advanced Colorectal Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 383, 2207-2218.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2017699
[40] Overman, M.J., McDermott, R., Leach, J.L., Lonardi, S., Lenz, H.J., Morse, M.A., Desai, J., Hill, A., Axelson, M., Moss, R.A., et al. (2017) Nivolumab in Patients with Metastatic DNA Mismatch Repair-Deficient or Microsatellite Instability-High Colorectal Cancer (CheckMate 142): An Open-Label, Mul-ticentre, Phase 2 Study. The Lancet Oncology, 18, 1182-1191.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(17)30422-9
[41] Lenz, H.J., Van Cutsem, E., Luisa Limon, M., Wong, K.Y.M., Hendlisz, A., Aglietta, M., García-Alfonso, P., Neyns, B., Luppi, G., Cardin, D.B., et al. (2022) First-Line Nivolumab plus Low-Dose Ipilimumab for Microsatellite Instability-High/Mismatch Repair-Deficient Metastatic Colo-rectal Cancer: The Phase II CheckMate 142 Study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 40, 161-170.
https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.21.01015
[42] Catenacci, D.V.T., Tebbutt, N.C., Davidenko, I., Murad, A.M., Al-Batran, S.E., Ilson, D.H., Tjulandin, S., Gotovkin, E., Karaszewska, B., Bondarenko, I., et al. (2017) Rilotumumab plus Epirubicin, Cisplatin, and Capecitabine as First-Line Therapy in Advanced MET-Positive Gastric or Gas-tro-Oesophageal Junction Cancer (RILOMET-1): A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Phase 3 Trial. The Lancet Oncology, 18, 1467-1482.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(17)30566-1
[43] Doi, T., Kang, Y.-K., Muro, K., Jiang, Y., Jain, R.K. and Li-zambri, R. (2015) A Phase 3, Multicenter, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study of Rilotumumab in Combination with Cisplatin and Capecitabine (CX) as First-Line Therapy for Asian Patients (pts) with Advanced MET-Positive Gastric or Gastroesophageal Junction (G/GEJ) Adenocarcinoma: The RILOMET-2 Trial. Journal of Clin-ical Oncology, 33, TPS226.
https://doi.org/10.1200/jco.2015.33.3_suppl.tps226
[44] Iveson, T., Donehower, R.C., Davidenko, I., Tjulandin, S., Deptala, A., Harrison, M., Nirni, S., Lakshmaiah, K., Thomas, A.., Jiang, Y., et al. (2014) Rilotumumab in Combination with Epirubicin, Cisplatin, and Capecitabine as First-Line Treatment for Gastric or Oesophagogastric Junction Adenocar-cinoma: An Open-Label, Dose De-Escalation Phase 1b Study and a Double-Blind, Randomised Phase 2 Study. The Lancet Oncology, 15, 1007-1018.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(14)70023-3
[45] Van Cutsem, E.., Eng, C., Nowara, E., Swieboda-Sadlej, A., Tebbutt, N.C., Mitchell, E., Davidenko, I., Stephenson, J., Elez, E., Prenen, H., et al. (2014) Randomized Phase Ib/II Tri-al of Rilotumumab or Ganitumab with Panitumumab versus Panitumumab Alone in Patients with Wild-Type KRAS Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. Clinical Cancer Research, 20, 4240-4250.
https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-13-2752
[46] Shah, M.A., Bang, Y.J., Lordick, F., Alsina, M., Chen, M., Hack, S.P., Bruey, J.M., Smith, D., McCaffery, I., Shames, D.S., et al. (2017) Effect of Fluorouracil, Leucovorin, and Oxaliplatin with or without Onartuzumab in HER2-Negative, MET-Positive Gastroesophageal Adenocarcinoma: The METGastric Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Oncology, 3, 620-627.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.5580
[47] Bendell, J.C., Hochster, H., Hart, L.L., Firdaus, I., Mace, J.R., McFarlane, J.J., Kozloff, M., Catenacci, D., Hsu, J.J., Hack, S.P., et al. (2017) A Phase II Randomized Trial (GO27827) of First-Line FOLFOX Plus Bevacizumab with or without the MET Inhibitor Onartuzumab in Patients with Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. Oncologist, 22, 264-271.
https://doi.org/10.1634/theoncologist.2016-0223
[48] Ciardiello, D., Vitiello, P.P., Cardone, C., Martini, G., Troiani, T., Martinelli, E. and Ciardiello, F. (2019) Immunotherapy of Colorectal Cancer: Challenges for Therapeutic Ef-ficacy. Cancer Treatment Reviews, 76, 22-32.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.04.003
[49] Diaz, L.A. and Le, D.T. (2015) PD-1 Blockade in Tumors with Mismatch-Repair Deficiency. The New England Journal of Medicine, 373, 1979.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1510353
[50] 张文俊, 胡芳娟, 梁文波. 不可切除结直肠癌肝转移的射频消融治疗[J]. 中华肿瘤防治杂志, 2010, 17(24): 2075-2078.
https://doi.org/10.16073/j.cnki.cjcpt.2010.24.021
[51] 王崑, 邢宝才. 结直肠癌肝转移的转化治疗[J]. 中国实用外科杂志, 2016, 36(4): 407-411.
[52] Tago, T., Katsumata, K., Udou, R., Kasahara, K., Mazaki, J., Kuwabara, H., et al. (2021) Significance of Radiofrequency Ablation for Unre-sectable Colorectal Cancer with Liver Metastases. Anticancer Research, 41, 5539-5547.
https://doi.org/10.21873/anticanres.15367
[53] Allard, M.A., Sebagh, M., Baillie, G., Lemoine, A., Dartigues, P., Faitot, F., Faron, M., Boige, V., Vitadello, F., Vibert, E., Elias, D., Adam, R., Goéré, D. and Sa Cunha, A. (2015) Com-parison of Complete Pathologic Response and Hepatic Injuries between Hepatic Arterial Infusion and Systemic Admin-istration of Oxaliplatin in Patients with Colorectal Liver Metastases. Annals of Surgical Oncology, 22, 1925-1932.
https://doi.org/10.1245/s10434-014-4272-7
[54] Jones, R.P., Hamann, S., Malik, H.Z., Fenwick, S.W., Poston, G.J. and Folprecht, G. (2014) Defined Criteria for Resectability Improves Rates of Secondary Resection after Systemic Therapy for Liver Limited Metastatic Colorectal Cancer. European Journal of Cancer, 50, 1590-1601.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2014.02.024
[55] Kelly, R.J., Kemeny, N.E. and Leonard, G.D. (2005) Current Strat-egies Using Hepatic Arterial Infusion Chemotherapy for the Treatment of Colorectal Cancer. Clinical Colorectal Cancer, 5, 166-174.
https://doi.org/10.3816/CCC.2005.n.027
[56] Passot, G., Soubrane, O., Giuliante, F., Zimmitti, G., Goéré, D., Yamashita, S. and Vauthey, J.N. (2016) Recent Advances in Chemotherapy and Surgery for Colorectal Liver Metastases. Liver Cancer, 6, 72-79.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000449349
[57] Dueland, S., Guren, T.K., Hagness, M., Glimelius, B., Line, P.D., Pfeiffer, P., Foss, A. and Tveit, K.M. (2015) Chemotherapy or Liver Transplantation for Nonresectable Liver Metastases from Colorectal Cancer? Annals of Surgery, 261, 956-960.
https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0000000000000786
[58] Hagness, M., Foss, A., Egge, T.S. and Dueland, S. (2014) Patterns of Recurrence after Liver Transplantation for Nonresectable Liver Metastases from Colorectal Cancer. Annals of Surgical Oncology, 21, 1323-1329.
https://doi.org/10.1245/s10434-013-3449-9
[59] Toso, C., Pinto Marques, H., Andres, A., Castro Sousa, F., Adam, R., Kalil, A., Clavien, P.A., Furtado, E., Barroso, E., Bismuth, H. and Compagnons Hépato-Biliaires Group (2017) Liver Transplantation for Colorectal Liver Metastasis: Survival without Recurrence Can Be Achieved. Liver Transplantation, 23, 1073-1076.
https://doi.org/10.1002/lt.24791