辅助生殖技术中绒毛膜下血肿的研究进展
Advances in the Study of Subchorionic Hematoma in Assisted Reproductive Technology
DOI: 10.12677/ACM.2023.13102176, PDF, HTML, XML, 下载: 257  浏览: 582  科研立项经费支持
作者: 许晓媛, 李思然, 崔 娜*:河北医科大学第二医院生殖医学科,河北 石家庄
关键词: 绒毛膜下血肿体外受精研究进展Subchorionic Hematoma (SCH) In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF) Research Progress
摘要: 绒毛膜下血肿(subchorionic hematoma, SCH)是指绒毛膜板与底蜕膜之间分离出血,而血液积聚在绒毛膜和底蜕膜之间形成的血肿。SCH在妊娠早期的超声检查中并不少见。既往的疾病、自身免疫性疾病和激素水平都可能与SCH有关,但其病因尚不清楚。有研究表明体外受精(in-vitro fertilization, IVF)是SCH发生的危险因素,且IVF助孕患者妊娠期发生SCH与不良妊娠结局关系密切。故本文针对IVF助孕患者从SCH的发病机制、诊断标准、危险因素、妊娠结局及治疗等方面进行综述,以期为临床诊治提供启示。
Abstract: Subchorionic hematoma (SCH) is a kind of hematoma that forms when blood separates between the chorionic plate and the underlying metaplasm and accumulates between the chorion and the un-derlying metaplasm. It is common to see this on ultrasound in early pregnancy. Pre-existing medi-cal conditions, autoimmune diseases and hormone levels may be associated with SCH, but its etiol-ogy is unknown. In vitro fertilization (IVF) has been shown to be a risk factor for the development of SCH, and the occurrence of SCH during pregnancy in IVF-assisted patients is strongly associated with poor pregnancy outcomes. Therefore, this paper reviews the pathogenesis, diagnostic criteria, risk factors, pregnancy outcome and treatment of SCH in patients with IVF assisted conception, in order to provide insight for clinical management.
文章引用:许晓媛, 李思然, 崔娜. 辅助生殖技术中绒毛膜下血肿的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2023, 13(10): 15555-15564. https://doi.org/10.12677/ACM.2023.13102176

1. 引言

绒毛膜下血肿(subchorionic hematoma, SCH)是指绒毛膜板和底蜕膜之间分离引起的出血,文献中记录的SCH发病率差异较大,从4%到48%不等 [1] 。然而临床对SCH的认识存在较大争议,部分学者认为血肿随着妊娠的进展将被逐渐吸收,无需特殊治疗;也有学者认为SCH是不良妊娠结局的风险来源,应积极治疗。几项研究报道了SCH与不良妊娠和围产儿结局的关系,如自然流产、死产、胎盘早剥、早产、胎儿生长受限和胎膜早破 [2] - [8] 。我们发现,与自然妊娠相比,体外受精(in vitro fertilization, IVF)妊娠中SCH更常见 [9] [10] [11] 。本文针对IVF-ET后SCH的发病机制、病因及治疗的研究进展进行阐述,供临床医生参考。

2. SCH的发病机制

SCH形成的确切机制尚不确定,可能由于母胎界面的免疫调节机制紊乱,滋养细胞侵入蜕膜异常,导致胎盘血管重铸不良。另外免疫攻击引起的免疫性血管炎症可能造成凝血因子活化,增加微血栓的形成,血管栓塞以及后续的缺血再灌注损伤引起的出血都参与了SCH的发生,这也可能导致异常胎盘形成 [3] [4] [6] 。此外,在母胎界面的免疫调节机制中,Th1和Th2细胞之间的平衡发挥关键的作用,尤其是在怀孕期间 [12] 。当胎儿与母体界面发生免疫冲突,致Th1细胞占优势,使得损伤性细胞与保护性细胞间的平衡被打破,血管凝血障碍,蜕膜血管发生破裂,形成SCH [13] 。而Th1和Th2细胞间的失衡会启动并强化参与自然流产、早产和先兆子痫的炎性细胞因子的级联产生 [14] 。

3. SCH的临床表现及诊断标准

大多数患有绒毛膜下血肿的女性会出现一些阴道出血 [15] ,常为暗红色或血性白带样,少数患者量多,鲜红色,出血数小时甚至数周,伴或不伴有轻度下腹痛、腰痛、阵发性腹痛,且大多在妊娠早、中期发生。妇科查体可见宫口未开,无妊娠物排出。但有些女性根本不会出现任何出血。

由于SCH的临床表现没有特异性,并且可以发生在妊娠的任何时期,因此SCH的诊断多数依靠超声检查。SCH通常为分隔子宫壁和绒毛膜的新月形低回声区域 [16] ,区别于急性出血的高回声或等回声。回声的高低与出血时间相关,若出血停止,血肿回声随病程进展逐渐减低。若处于血肿急性期(0~48 h),血肿回声高于妊娠囊壁或叶状绒毛膜。若处于血肿亚急性期(3~7 d),血肿回声近似于妊娠囊壁或叶状绒毛膜,血肿内回声表现复杂,如纤维条带样、团块状等。若出于血肿慢性期(>7 d),血肿呈低或无回声。最好每1~2周监测B超一次,若血肿增大,则提示病情加剧;血肿吸收缩小,提示病情缓解好转,一直监测至血肿消失。值得注意的是,SCH还需要与肿瘤、双胎妊娠和早孕晚期绒毛膜与羊膜未融合相鉴别 [17] 。

描述SCH的方法在不同的报道中有很大不同。一些研究报告了SCH的大小,即被血肿包围的孕囊周长的百分比 [18] [19] [20] [21] ;一些人根据SCH大小主观分类为小、中或大 [22] ;还有人估计了SCH与孕囊的相对体积 [3] [18] [19] [20] [21] [23] 或通过公式计算SCH的体积 [6] [18] [19] [24] [25] 。临床常用的主要有以下两种方法:血肿/孕囊面积比例法:即血肿/孕囊面积 < 1/3为轻度,1/3~1/2为中度,>2/3属于重度;血肿/孕囊体积比例法:<10%,11%~25%,26%~50%,>50%四个等级 [26] 。诊断时更常应用分度法:小于孕囊周边的1/3为轻度,达到孕囊周边的1/3~1/2为中度,大于孕囊周边的1/2为重度。

4. IVF中SCH的病因

4.1. 控制性卵巢刺激(Controlled Ovarian Stimulation, COS)

SCH在IVF助孕患者中发病率高 [9] ,这可能由于在COS中超生理水平的血清雌二醇可能会导致内膜的形态、生理和微环境的变化,从而损害新鲜周期移植患者的子宫内膜容受性,一方面可能会对着床和妊娠率产生不利影响 [27] ,另一方面高雌激素影响早期发育的胚胎的种植,可能导致植入和胎盘形成不充分 [28] [29] ,从而导致SCH的发生及后续胎盘发育不良。Esh-Broder等人 [30] 回顾了752例IVF妊娠,发现IVF妊娠的胎盘植入率显著高于自然妊娠。而IVF妊娠中胎盘异常引起的产科并发症发生率较高的原因尚不完全清楚,推测也可能与COS中的高雌激素水平有关系。

4.2. 鲜胚移植或冻胚移植

一项对1097例IVF病例的回顾性队列研究表明,SCH可能与鲜胚移植有关 [31] 。Ma等人通过多元逻辑回归分析发现鲜胚移植是SCH发生的危险因素 [32] 。原因可能是接受鲜胚移植患者卵巢刺激及体内高雌二醇水平。高雌二醇浓度及卵巢刺激使得子宫内膜容受性降低 [33] ,孕早期血管生成障碍、胎盘形成不佳,边缘血管可能破裂形成血肿。还有研究认为鲜胚移植后,与妊娠相关血浆蛋白A (PAPP-A)分泌减少 [28] ,而PAPP-A是由胎盘组织细胞及滋养细胞合成分泌的大分子糖蛋白,可诱导细胞外基质重塑,对于妊娠早期的血管生成和胎盘的形成至关重要。PAPP-A的分泌降低也可能导致鲜胚周期SCH发生的原因之一。

另外,大多数研究结果显示,冷冻胚胎移植(frozen-thawed embryo transfer, FET)后产科并发症的发生率显著减少 [34] [35] 。然而,一项研究得出了相反的趋势,与鲜胚移植相比,FET后SCH的发生率更高 [9] 。鉴于关于FET的研究都是激素替代周期(hormone replacement therapy, HRT),因此妊娠结局可能与激素替代周期期间子宫内膜环境的改变有关。另外有研究证明,与自然周期相比,HRT中SCH的发生率高、出血增加 [28] [36] 。与COS相比,HRT患者的雌激素水平较低。因此我们推测,在FET中,除了由外源性雌激素引起的子宫内膜环境改变以外的其他因素也会影响着床和胎盘的形成。Sazonova等人 [35] 比较了FET (2348周期)和鲜胚移植(8944周期)后产科并发症的发生率,发现FET组妊娠高血压综合征(pregnancy-induced hypertension, PIH)的发生率较高。此外,Ishihara等人 [37] 比较了大样本量的FET (151,998个周期)和鲜胚移植(125,044个周期),也发现FET与PIH的发生有关。尽管目前对PIH的病因存在争议,但主要的假说是,一些胎盘疾病或免疫问题,会引起与血管生成相关因子的变化,如孕妇血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor, VEGF)、胎盘生长因子和血清可溶性VEGF受体-1,这些血管生成因子可能会导致母体进一步的胎盘功能不足和系统性疾病 [38] 。尽管这一假说并不完全适用,但FET组SCH的高发生率很可能是由于FET过程中植入环境的变化造成底蜕膜没有牢固的侵入子宫壁,导致底蜕膜和子宫壁之间的结构不牢固,导致血肿的发生。因此,需要更大样本量的研究来证实FET后SCH的高发生率,并阐明潜在的原因。

4.3. 囊胚移植

有研究表明囊胚移植也是IVF中发生SCH的危险因素 [9] ,Fernando等人 [39] 发现囊胚移植后的女性发生先兆子痫和前置胎盘的风险略高。并且,有证据说明与卵裂期胚胎移植相比,囊胚移植后早产和大于胎龄儿(large for gestational age, LGA)的风险显著增加 [40] [41] ,推测延长胚胎培养可能导致异常的植入和胎盘形成,影响滋养外胚层细胞的基因和表观。在囊胚移植中,移植滋养外胚层较低级别的囊胚后的妊娠易出现SCH,已知滋养细胞TE分级和IVF结局相关 [42] [43] [44] ,因此滋养外胚层A级的囊胚,可能可以一定程度减少SCH及其相关并发症的发生。但是此类研究的样本量较小,需要更大样本量的研究来确定。

4.4. 多囊卵巢综合症(Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, PCOS)

有研究发现PCOS是IVF助孕人群发生SCH的独立危险因素 [32] 。PCOS患者异常的代谢和激素水平可能通过影响子宫内膜容受性诱发SCH [45] 。另一些研究表明,整合素及白细胞介素、MECA-79的免疫分子在PCOS患者中表达降低也是引起SCH的因素之一 [45] [46] 。仍然需要大样本的试验进一步探索。

4.5. 输卵管积水

输卵管积水的患者一般会接受输卵管结扎或切除的治疗,避免输卵管积水对子宫内膜的侵蚀作用。虽然输卵管积水无法返回宫腔,但是一些潜在致病因素,如细胞因子、前列腺素、白细胞介素等通过淋巴和血液循环作用到邻近器官,危害子宫内膜的功能,降低子宫内膜容受性 [47] [48] 。仅一项研究报道输卵管积水是SCH的危险因素 [32] ,但机制尚不清楚。

5. SCH的临床结局

5.1. 孕妇年龄与妊娠结局

不同年龄女性发生SCH的结局有明显差异。高龄孕妇胎盘附着于子宫壁上需要更多的营养物质和血供,而机体自身供求失衡,胎膜未牢牢附着于子宫壁,导致SCH的发生。有研究观察到,35岁及以上妇女的自然流产率约为年轻妇女的两倍(13.8% vs. 7.3%) [21] [26] ,提示SCH的高龄妇女产生不良结局的风险大于低龄妇女。高龄孕妇不良妊娠结局风险的增加主要归因于并存的其他疾病,如代谢综合征、既往癌症病史、心血管、肾脏和自身免疫性疾病。

5.2. 诊断时的胎龄(Gestational Age, GA)与妊娠结局

有研究发现,孕9周前被诊断为SCH的妇女流产率约为20%,而在此孕龄之后被诊断SCH的妇女,流产的可能性要小得多(不到2%) [6] [49] 。也有研究发现孕8周及以前妊娠丢失的风险为17.3%,8周后风险降为3.6% [26] 。

5.3. 血肿大小及部位与妊娠结局

血肿量及血肿部位可能影响妊娠结局。关于多普勒超声的研究显示,血肿扩大与螺旋动脉血流速度减慢有显著关系,对维持妊娠有潜在的威胁 [50] 。但是,关于血肿量和妊娠结局之间的关系尚存在争议。有研究显示“大”血肿与不良妊娠结局之间有显著的相关性 [51] [52] ,也有研究并未明确指出 [6] 。Bennett等人 [21] 的研究将血肿引起的孕囊周长大于孕囊周长的2/3定义为大体积,此“大”血肿导致自然流产的风险增加2.4倍。因此,不同研究结果的差异可能是由于对血肿“大小”的随意定义,未给出统一的评判标准。通过宫颈的出血量并不完全等于绒毛膜下出血量。因此,血肿大小不能代表其严重程度,最终只能通过子宫中出血、再吸收和通过宫颈的失血量来评估病情。我们可以在此基础上推测血肿的存在及位置,作为胎盘受损的标志,对妊娠结局的预测至关重要 [26] 。一些人评估了SCH在子宫中的位置 [3] [23] [24] [50] [53] 并发现,SCH出现在宫底部比较严重,不良妊娠结局发生率由高到低依次为:宫底部 > 子宫前、后壁 > 宫颈口。原因可能是子宫颈处血肿在妊娠过程中被溶解、吸收,或慢慢从宫颈排出,而宫底部血肿不能从宫颈流出,血肿可能越来越大,另外,长期的出血也增加宫内感染的机会,导致病情越来越重 [54] 。

5.4. SCH与妊娠并发症

有研究发现IVF妊娠妇女SCH的发生与自然流产率的增加有关 [32] 。但是,Zhou等人发现与自然妊娠相比,IVF/ICSI后SCH的妇女妊娠失败的几率并未增加 [31] 。发生SCH与无SCH的IVF妊娠女性相比,流产率并未增加 [55] 。另外,有研究认为SCH与早产、自然流产、妊高症的发生无关 [56] [57] 。因此,血肿对妊娠结局的影响尚存争议。

5.5. SCH与胎儿及胎儿附属物异常

有报道发现与接受IVF以外的不孕症治疗的非IVF组相比,IVF组的产前出血和前置胎盘的发生率更高 [28] 。IVF妊娠与自然妊娠相比,SCH与单胎妊娠的低出生体重有关 [31] 。另外,也有学者认为,SCH未增加胎膜早破、胎盘早剥,死产,胎儿生长受限的风险 [56] 。SCH对新生儿结局的影响有待进一步研究。

6. 绒毛膜下大量血肿(Massive Subchorionic Hematoma, MSH)

MSH是一种巨大的母体血液凝块,厚度至少1厘米,将绒毛膜板和孕囊分开 [58] 。这种疾病的发病率很低,约0.03%~0.08% [59] 。MSH的发生与不良妊娠结局有关,如胎儿生长受限(FGR)和胎儿宫内死亡(IUFD) [59] [60] [61] 。也有研究报道MSH与胎儿生长受限、先兆子痫、胎儿窘迫、胎盘早剥、早产等不良妊娠结局相关 [59] [62] [63] [64] 。此类疾病几乎都是以病例报告的形式报道,这也是其病理生理仍不清楚的原因。有病例报道出MSH伴随着胎盘肥大,虽然胎盘肥大通常是由绒毛增大引起的,但是具体原因有:积水、梅毒、弓形虫病、巨细胞病毒或微小病毒、胎盘间质发育不良 [65] [66] 。当出现不明原因胎盘肥大时,应把MSH视为鉴别诊断。磁共振成像对MSH的诊断和随访是有用的,结合多普勒超声检查观察胎盘内液–液平面的发展情况。有报道说液–液平面发生在血肿的早期阶段 [61] ;也有病例的液–液水平是连续出血后的沉淀效应引起的。因此,影像学表现暂未发现特异性指标 [67] 。

7. SCH的治疗

SCH在临床中并不少见,但是暂无相关指南指导治疗。首先应结合病人个体情况进行全面评估,在病情允许条件下,保持积极向上的良好心态,良好的生活方式,卧床休息 [68] ,避免过度焦虑,观察是否伴随宫缩。如有宫缩,可应用间苯三酚、硫酸镁、阿托西班等抑制宫缩。

妊娠早期的SCH主要依靠机体自身对血肿的吸收来修复,对于中至大型的SCH患者,以促进血肿吸收、对症治疗为主。低分子肝素作为高效抗凝剂,具有抑制凝血酶及凝血活性因子的作用,通过增加抗凝血酶的活性,保护血管壁,以改善胎盘血液循环。阿司匹林属于非甾体类抗炎药,其应用可明显改善血液的高凝状态,有效抑制血小板凝集,预防血栓的形成,改善局部血液循环,降低子宫动脉血流阻力,促进前列环素与血栓素平衡,增加胎盘血流,从而促进胚胎生长。因这两种药物具有强效抗栓作用,联合使用可使血肿情况得到改善。若血肿持续增大的情况下,可暂停低分子肝素,加用宫缩抑制剂和止血药,例如氨甲环酸、安络血等,必要时使用抗生素预防感染。另外,地屈孕酮被发现在维持Th2细胞因子平衡方面具有免疫调节作用,也有一定治疗作用 [69] 。现有研究证实低分子肝素联合免疫球蛋白有可观的治疗作用 [70] [71] 。此外,最新研究发现硫辛酸 [72] [73] 作为一种免疫调节剂,可以纠正SCH患者体内的免疫失衡,促进血肿吸收。

8. 小结

综上所述,辅助生殖技术治疗后出现SCH的机制尚未明确,其对妊娠结局的影响也未明确。对于此类SCH患者,临床医生应密切关注,安抚患者,引导患者积极面对以减少不良妊娠结局的发生。最新的研究 [32] 创建了预测SCH发生及结局的列线图,为临床医生的处理提供参考。对于其他变量,如多囊卵巢综合征、薄型子宫内膜、输卵管积水等是否是SCH的危险因素,仍待进一步研究。应积极探讨IVF人群SCH的发病机制,紧密结合SCH的进展,改善母婴预后。

基金项目

河北省医学科学研究课题计划(批准编号20230444)。

利益冲突

所有作者均声明不存在利益冲突。

NOTES

*通讯作者。

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